UNIVERSITY  OF  CALSFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


TROPICAL  HOLLAND 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS,  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 

THE  BAKER  Si  TAYLOR  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  LONDON 

THE  MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA,  TOKYO,  OSAKA,  KYOTO,  fUKUOKA,  lENDAI 

THE  MISSION  BOOK  COMPANY,  SHANGHAI 


TROPICAL  HOLLAND 

AN  ESSAY  ON  THE  BIRTH,  GROWTH 
AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  POPULAR 
GOVERNMENT  IN  AN  ORIENTAL  POSSESSION 


By  H.  A.  VAN  COENEN  TORCHIANA 

Member  of  the  American  Bar,  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Inititute  of  Intermediaru  Inlemational  Law  of  the  Hague,  Conml 
General  of  the  Netherlands  for  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  U.S.A. 


WITH  MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS 


COPYRIGHT  1921  BY  THE  UNTVERSITT  OF  CHICAOO 
AIL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
PUBLISHED  SEPTEMBER  IQZI 


COMPOSED  AND  PRINTED  BY 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS,  U.S.A. 


( 

I 


TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  HIS  MOTHER 
AND  FATHER  WHO  LIVED  HAPPILY 
FOR  MANY  YEARS  IN  INSULINDE.  THIS 
ESSAY  IS  DEDICATED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


6/5" 


aH'?84G 


GRATEFUL  ACKNOWLEDGMENT  IS  HEREBY  MADE 

TO 

JONKHEER,  DR.  A.  C.  D.  DE  GRAEFF, 

R£TIKED  VICE-PRESIDENT  OP  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  INDIES, 
MINISTER  PLENIPOTENTIARY  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  TO  JAPAN 


C.  M.  PLEYTE,  ESQ. 

RETIRED  MANAGING  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  BATAVIAN  PETROLEUM  COMPANY 

FOR  FREELY  GRANTING  AID  OUT  OF  THEIR  GREAT  STOREHOUSES  OF 
ORIENTAL  KNOWLEDGE 

TO 

MISS  ELEANOR  FRANCES  BUMP 

A  GRADUATE  OF  WELLESLEY  COLLEGE,  WHO  ACCOMPANIED  THE 
WRITER  AND  PARTY  DURING  THEIR  TRAVELS  IN  THE  ORIENT 

FOR  HER  VALUABLE  ASSISTANCE  IN  GATHERING  AND 
CLASSIFYING  IMPORTANT  MATERLAL  FOR  THIS  ESSAY 


FOREWORD 

HE  spread  of  European  influence  and  Euro- 
pean interest  throughout  the  world  following 
the  important  discoveries  by  the  Spanish 
under  Columbus  and  by  the  Portuguese 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  has  been 
one  of  the  most  vital  facts  in  the  history  of  the  world 
since  that  time.  The  vast  extension  of  commerce, 
great  increase  in  manufacturing  and  commercial 
wealth  of  European  nations,  the  settlement  of  various 
parts  of  the  world  by  European  immigrants,  the  control 
in  one  form  or  another  of  non-European  races  by 
European  authority,  all  these  have  made  a  new  world. 
Among  the  earliest  in  the  field  of  commercial  and 
colonial  expansion  was  the  Dutch  Republic.  The 
settlements  which  they  effected,  both  in  the  West 
Indies,  as  they  were  called,  and  in  the  East  Indies 
were  permanent  in  character.  To  be  sure,  the  New 
Netherlands  became  later  a  British  colony.  The 
Dutch  East  Indies  remained  under  the  Republic  and 
have  been  extremely  successful  in  many  ways.  The 
Dutch  policy,  primarily  commercial,  has  nevertheless 
been  humane  and  far-reaching.  The  change  in  meth- 
ods of  local  administration  within  the  last  few  decades 
has  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  world  and  is 
eminently  worthy  of  the  successors  of  William  the 
Silent.  Mr.  Torchiana's  discussion  of  the  matter  is 
worthy  of  serious  attention  and  will  be  extremely  useful 

to  students  of  colonization. 

Harry  Pratt  Judson 

[vii] 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Prologue xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Unbiased  Viewpoint 3 

II.  A  Few  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Topo- 
graphical Facts 15 

III.  Climate,  Flora,  and  Fauna 23 

IV.  A  Few  Ethnological  Facts,  and  the  Popula- 

tion of  Today     31 

V.  The  Historical  Title  of  the  Netherlands  to 

the  East  Indian  Colonies      .       .       .       .      41 
The  Prehistoric  Period;  the  Hindu  Period;    the 
Early  European  Navigators 

VI.  The  Historical  Title  of  the  Netherlands  to 

THE  East  Indian  Colonies,  Continued   .       .       61 
Insulinde  during  the  Sixteenth  Century 

VII.  The  Historical  Title  of  the  Netherlands  to 

THE  East  Indian  Colonies,  Concluded   .     .       75 
The     Netherlands     East      Indian     Company; 
Insulinde  in  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth 
Centuries 

VIII.  The  Equitable  Title  of  the  Mother  Country 

to  Her  Colonies 131 

IX.  Insulinde  in  the  Nineteenth  Century      .       .  147 

X.  Insulinde  OF  Today 163 

XI.  Insulinde  of  Today,  Concluded       ....  245 

XII.  The  Future  of  Insulinde 281 

Index 309 


[ix] 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAGE 

Old-Fashioned  European  Home  at  Surabaya,  Java 

Frontispiece  iii 

Fish  Ponds  of  Tjipanas,  Java i6 

Sulphur  Fumes  of  Kawah  Kamodjan      .       .       ,       .  i8 

The  Flora  of  Java 26 

A  Javanese  Noblewoman 32 

Thousand  Temples  near  Djokjakarta,  Java       .       .  44 

In  the  Preanger  Regencies 44 

View  of  the  Crater  Bromo 68 

Agricultural  Java 94 

Old  Batavia 106 

A  Netherlands  Official's  Visit  to  the  Sultan  of 

Djokjakarta,  Java,  July,  1919 170 

Princes   of   the  House   of  Surakarta  in  Native 

Costume 172 

Workshop  of  the  State  Railroad  at  Bandong,  Java  186 

A  CocK-FiGHT  Witnessed  by  Natives      ....  204 

Former  Mode  of  Transportation 212 

Terraced  Rice  Fields,  Java 234 

Cinchona  (Quinine)  Plantation 234 

Javanese  Women  Picking  Coffee 256 

Tapping  Rubber  Trees  in  Sumatra        .       .       .       .272 

A  Native  Belle  (Island  of  Bali) 296 

Map  of  Java 306 

Map  of  Malay  Archipelago 306 

N 


PROLOGUE 

"BOY.  PAGE  JAVA" 

OME  time  during  the  late  war,  one  of  the  big 
liners  of  the  Netherlands  Navigation  Com- 
pany, plying  between  Amsterdam  and  Java, 
was  hailed  in  the  Red  Sea  by  a  British 
auxiliary  cruiser.  The  captain  in  command 
of  the  liner  was  on  the  bridge.  This  gallant  Dutch 
mariner  joins  Falstaffian  wit  with  Falstafhan  dimen- 
sions. 

The  young  British  officer  who  hailed  the  liner  from 
the  bridge  of  the  temporary  war  vessel,  had  evidently 
been  drawn  from  civil  life,  and  his  geographical  knowl- 
edge was  in  inverse  ratio  to  his  patriotic  impulses, 
which  had  impelled  him  to  dedicate  his  future  and 
his  life  to  his  country. 

The  first  question  which  he  shouted  was: 

"Whence  and  where  to  ?" 

The  answer  from  the  bridge  of  the  Dutch  liner  was : 

"To  Amsterdam  from  Java." 

Right  back  from  the  cruiser  came  the  query : 

"Where  in  hell  is  Java?" 

Now  the  jolly  Dutch  captain  had  been  many  times 
in  the  United  States.  He  had  observed  the  actions 
of  chief  clerks  in  hotel  offices,  when  guests  had  to  be 
found  and  could  not  be  located  by  telephone  in  their 
private  rooms.  He  had  seen  the  clerk  call  a  boy,  and 
give  him  instructions  to  page  the  guest  in  the  lobby, 
dining  room,  or  in  happier  times,  in  the  wine  room. 

fxiiil 


Imitating  the  actions  of  the  clerk,  he  extended  his 
hand  as  if  to  tap  a  bell  on  the  office  desk,  then  with  a 
twinkle  in  his  eye,  he  said  to  the  young  navigation 
officer  standing  beside  him  on  the  bridge,  "Boy, 
page  Java." 

Then  grasping  the  megaphone  he  gave  this  reply: 
"Java  is  a  tight  little  island,  near  the  equator, 
unmediately  adjoining  the  British  possessions  of  the 
Federated  Malay  States,  and  having  a  few  more  mil- 
lion inhabitants  than  ]\Ierrie  Old  England.  Its  splen- 
did isolation  is  broken  by  the  visit  of  five  large  liners 
fortnightly,  and  .  .  .  ." — but  by  this  time  a  roar  of 
laughter  from  the  bridge  of  the  British  man-of-war, 
showed  conclusively  that  after  all  our  British  cousins 
do  appreciate  a  good  joke,  and  still  recognize  a  Sir 
John  Falstaff  when  he  looms  up  large  enough  on  the 
horizon. 


[xiv] 


CHAPTER  I.    THE  UNBIASED  VIEW- 
POINT 


Difficulties  to  be  overcome — History  from  a  philosophical 
standpoint —  Chauvinism —  Misdirected  patriotism — Precepts 
of  Roosevelt — Criticism  by  Charles  Dickens — Different 
psychologies — The  new  psychology,  its  origin  and  develop- 
ment 


THE  UNBIASED  VIEWPOINT 


RAVELOGUES  are  almost  invariably  unsat- 
isfactory. The  reasons  for  this  are  not 
difficult  to  find.  No  matter  how  intelligent 
the  traveler,  no  matter  how  well-trained  the 
observer,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the 
author  of  the  travelogue  lacks  thorough  historical 
knowledge  of  the  country  which  he  has  visited — 
knowledge  which  is  so  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  a  suitable  intellectual  background.  It  is 
next  to  impossible  to  obtain  a  correct  conception  of 
social,  industrial,  and  political  conditions  of  any  coun- 
try unless  one  understands  and  appreciates  the  great 
formative  forces  which  have  caused  the  conditions  to 
evolve  in  the  past  and  to  crystallize  in  the  present. 
The  immediate  result  is  that  travelogues  are  gener- 
ally received  with  approbation,  if  not  with  applause, 
by  those  who  listen  to  them  or  read  them,  and  to 
whom  they  are  primarily  addressed,  while  they  meet 
with  wonder  and  often  with  derision  from  those  citi- 
zens and  inhabitants  of  the  country  described  who  have 
the  rare  opportunity  of  acquainting  themselves  with 
these  immature  mental  products.  What  foreigner, 
for  instance,  would  understand  the  present  com- 
plicated conditions  existing  in  the  United  States, 
unless  he  had  a  correct  idea  of  the  history  of  the 
Colonies  and  some  appreciation  of  the  deeds  of 
Washington  and  Hamilton?  An  intelligent  view  on 
his  part  presupposes  understanding  of  the  absorbing 

[3] 


struggle  between  the  Federalists  and  the  States  Right- 
ers,  a  knowledge  of  the  difference  between  the  Jeffer- 
sonian  and  Jacksonian  doctrines  of  democracy,  and 
a  comprehension  of  the  titanic  struggle  involved  in 
the  winning  of  the  West. 

Who  will  understand  today  the  different  strata 
in  the  American  Commonwealth  unless  he  has  been 
inspired  at  some  time  by  the  march  westward  of  this 
virile  ci\'ilization  and  has  before  his  mind  a  photo- 
graphic view  of  the  successive  waves  of  the  trappers, 
the  hunters,  the  cow-men,  the  sheep-men,  the  home- 
steaders, the  grain  farmers,  the  traders,  and  in  their 
wake  the  American  primary  schools,  high  schools, 
colleges,  and  universities  ? 

There  is  another  fundamental  difficulty  in  describ- 
ing a  foreign  country  to  a  home  audience.  The 
philosophic  \'iewpoint  is  too  frequently  neglected  in 
the  writing  of  history.  For  centuries  historians  have 
been  unable  to  free  themselves  from  the  fetters  in 
which  their  minds  have  been  held  through  so-called 
patriotism,  better  called  chauvinism.  One  might 
amost  believe  that  the  word  patriotism,  used  in  this 
narrow  sense,  is  derived  from  the  word  patron,  for  the 
first  historians  were  almost  invariably  patronized  by 
some  ruler  or  great  lord  for  whom  they  wrote,  or  to 
whom  they  dedicated  their  works.  The  spirit  of 
fawning  which  in  olden  times,  as  a  result  of  these 
conditions,  too  frequently  appeared  among  the  broth- 
erhood of  historians — an  almost  cringing  respect 
shown  to  powerful  individuals — seems  to  have  been 

[4] 


transferred  in  some  degree  even  to  our  own  age  and 
is  now  sometimes  directed  to  the  less  noble  passions 
of  the  masses.  For  the  most  part,  however,  there  has 
been  in  our  time  an  advance  toward  better  things, 
scholars  now  visualize  historical  science  as  based  on 
broader  Hnes,  and  history  is  written  not  from  narrow 
and  local  motives  but  from  a  Hberal  international  and 
philosophical  standpoint.  More  and  more  steadily 
the  conviction  has  grown  that  it  is  a  feeble  kind  of 
patriotism  which  needs  as  a  stimulant  hatred  and 
contempt  for  other  countries.  Men  are  realizing  more 
clearly  that  international  hatreds,  from  which  most 
wars  spring,  are  often  implanted  in  the  hearts  of 
children  by  reading  so-called  abridged  histories  during 
their  school  years — that  is  during  the  period  when  they 
are  most  susceptible  to  the  acquirement  of  lasting 
impressions. 

The  doctrine  proclaimed  by  such  Americans  as 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  that  the  precepts  which  guide  a 
decent  man  in  his  private  life  should  be  the  lode-star 
of  his  public  life,  may  well  be  extended  to  the  thesis 
that  we  should  judge  in  as  decent,  as  charitable,  and 
as  friendly  a  manner  the  nations  that  are  our  sisters 
in  the  great  family  of  nations  as  we  should  judge  the 
famihes  of  our  own  neighbors  in  private  Hfe. 

Thus  it  frequently  happens  that  the  traveler  who, 
burdened  with  an  inheritance  of  biased  information, 
\'isits  foreign  countries,  is  too  apt  to  cling  to  the  theory 
that  "everything  at  home  is  better,"  and  that  that 
which  is  strange  "looks   queer."     When  he  writes 

Isl 


down  his  impressions  he  is  still  laboring  under  ata- 
vistic handicaps,  and,  while  he  may  possibly  add  to 
the  gaiety  of  the  people  whose  country  he  describes, 
he  certainly  adds  to  the  ignorance  of  those  who  are 
presumed  to  be  the  beneficiaries  of  his  mental  efforts. 
That  even  brilliant  persons,  either  through  pique  or 
prejudice,  or  through  lack  of  broadness  of  \dew  outside 
of  their  own  special  sphere,  are  likely  to  fall  into  these 
errors  is  easily  proved  by  the  case  of  Charles  Dickens. 
ffis  virulent,  and  in  many  instances  grotesque,  criti- 
cism of  the  American  people,  now  more  than  half  a 
century  old,  is  still  quoted  with  approbation  and 
satisfaction  by  many  would-be  critics  in  the  Old 
World. 

The  third  almost  insurmountable  difficulty  is  the 
difference  so  often  existing  between  the  psychologies 
of  the  people  whom  the  author  describes  and  the 
people  for  whom  he  writes.  For  a  great  many  years 
it  was  generally  accepted  that  the  civilized  part  of  the 
human  race  was  divided  into  two  great  mental  fami- 
lies, to  wit,  those  whose  psychological  point  of  view 
is  Western,  and  those  whose  mental  processes  are 
Oriental.  Western  psychology,  which  is  influenced  to 
a  great  extent  by  Christian  and  Hebrew  doctrines, 
was  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  white  man.  It  was 
believed  to  have  had  its  birth  in  the  Near  East,  to 
have  been  cultivated  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Greece,  to 
have  been  later  extended  to  Rome,  and  finally,  after 
ages  of  evolution,  to  have  been  handed  down  to 
Western  civilization  in  general. 

[6] 


The  Oriental  psychology,  from  a  religious  stand- 
point, was  largely  dominated  by  Buddhism  and 
Mohaimnedanism.  It,  too,  was  believed  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  the  Near  East.  Later  it  seems  to  have 
been  largely  cultivated  and  expounded  in  India  and  in 
China  after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  especially 
in  the  third  century  B.C.,  and  then,  partly  through 
the  agency  of  Buddhism  and  partly  that  of  Islam,  to 
have  spread  eastward  in  other  Oriental  countries/ 

It  is  often  said  that  the  white  man's  psychology 
pervaded  and  intensified  practical  and  positive  civili- 
zation, while  that  of  the  Orientals  gave  birth  to  a 
literary  or  philosophical  civilization.  Those  two  cur- 
rents of  thought — the  one  flowing  westward,  the 
other  eastward — are  now  presumed  to  face  each  other 
across  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Pacifi.c  Ocean,  Their 
outposts  on  the  islands  of  Australasia  and  Malaysia 
are  already  in  close  and  often  hostile  contact. 

Only  during  the  last  few  decades  has  it  slowly 
dawned  on  the  world  that  this  theory  is  not  entirely 
correct.  The  ci\dlizations  of  the  earth  have  given 
birth  to  a  third  and  distinct  psychology,  which  may 
be  called,  after  its  chief  representatives,  the  American 
psychology.  It  is  not,  however,  the  people  of  the 
United  States  alone  who  follow  this  trend  of  thought. 
It  is  prevalent  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  the 

'  Buddhism  first  appeared  in  China  in  217  B.C.  A  great  stream 
of  Hindu  priests  began  to  flow  toward  China  about  65  a.d.  and 
continued  uninterrupted  and  in  ever  greater  volume  until  the  fourth 
century  a.d.,  when  the  prohibition  was  lifted  which  prevented  the 
Chinese  from  taking  orders  as  priests. 

I7] 


Dominion  of  New  Zealand,  in  the  Commonwealth  of 
Austraha,  and  in  the  Federated  South  African  States. 
While  some  of  its  elements  have  their  foundations 
firmly  imbedded  in  English  Common  Law,  in  EngHsh 
literature,  and  in  the  British  ideas  of  personal  freedom, 
still  it  has  been  affected  by  many  other  influences,  of 
which  the  Dutch  is  by  no  means  the  least.  This 
psychology  has  grown  and  developed  to  such  an  extent 
that  its  reputed  mother  would  have  difficulty  in  recog- 
nizing her  lusty  offspring.  It  is  the  psychology  of 
a  group  of  nations  which  have  adopted  the  mod- 
ern democratic  form  of  government,  which  are  not 
cramped  by  narrow  boundaries  and  overflowing  popu- 
lations, which  do  not  harbor  suspicions  and  hatreds  of 
pohtical  neighbors — hatreds  born  from  past  wrongs 
and  fears  of  the  future.  It  is  the  psychology  of  people 
whose  thoughts  are  free  from  overhanging  shadows 
of  expected  wars,  who  do  not  feel  that  each  move  is 
watched  by  enemies  standing  at  their  very  doors  and 
armed  to  the  teeth. 

Such  a  psycholog}'-  could  be  acquired  and  evolve 
only  in  countries  where,  theoretically  and  actually, 
equal  opportunities  are  offered  to  all  citizens,  regard- 
less of  birth  or  differences  of  creed,  and  where  the 
people  are  able  to  develop  on  large  expanses  of  land — 
in  countries  of  which  the  more  cultured  and  urbane 
parts  were  continuously  refreshed  and  strengthened 
by  the  \drile  thoughts  of  sons  sent  forth  into  the  for- 
ests and  mountains,  into  the  mines  and  plains,  even 
into  the  wilderness,  but  ultimately  returning,  when  of 

[8] 


mature  age,  to  the  more  civilized  places  whence  they 
came.  They  colored  and  strengthened,  though  they 
sometimes  roughened,  the  mental  attitude  of  the  older 
parts  of  the  nation. 

This  great  schism  in  the  Western  mental  processes 
first  became  apparent  at  the  time  of  the  American 
Revolution.  American  thought,  like  the  chief  rep- 
resentative of  European  thought,  viz.,  France,  had 
dropped  the  shackles  of  dogmatism  and  welcomed 
"the  new  light."  But  American  orators  and  writers 
were  not  bitter  and  sarcastic  like  Rousseau,  Diderot, 
and  Voltaire.  On  the  contrary,  leaders  like  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  John  Adams  firmly  beheved  in  the  good- 
ness of  man,  in  reason,  in  humanity  in  general,  and 
they  clung  to  rehgious  ideals. 

It  was  especially  during  the  last  Great  War  that 
many  Americans  in  the  army  ascertained  for  the  first 
time,  and  with  a  shock,  how  Httle  mental  understand- 
ing there  existed  between  them  and  Europeans,  even 
between  them  and  their  British  cousins.  Though 
wearing  the  same  clothing,  using  the  same  furniture, 
admiring  the  same  arts,  etc.,  still  they  intuitively  felt 
that  there  was  a  subtle  but  very  material  difference. 
The  existence  of  this  difference  was  of  course  well 
known  for  years  to  thoughtful  observers. 

There  was  a  different  story  to  tell  when  the 
American  doughboys  met  the  Canadians,  the  Austra- 
lians, or  the  New  Zealanders  in  the  "overseas"  forces. 
With  these,  as  well  as  with  the  South  Africans,  they 
were  soon  en  rapport.     They  were  kindred  in  spirit  as 

[9I 


well  as  kindred  in  language.  With  Europeans,  how- 
ever, it  was  different.  By  intuition  they  knew  that 
the  latter  were  people  who  very  often  did  not  under- 
stand them,  even  if  they  spoke  the  same  language. 
They  realized  a  difference  in  viewpoint  in  almost 
everything  that  the  normal  man  holds  dear:  home, 
family  life,  the  "folks,"  public  life,  woman's  position, 
education,  and  what  not.  This  difference  is  especially 
notable  as  to  the  subjective  minds  of  both  great 
subdivisions  in  the  family  of  white  men.  After  some 
reasoning  and  con\ancing  argument  their  objective 
minds  may  be  brought  into  harmony,  but  their 
subjective  minds  contain — of  course  mostly  uncon- 
sciously to  the  objective  mind — many  reservations. 

Deep  in  the  consciousness  of  the  American  people 
are  found  those  new  and  strong  traits  which  were 
developed  in  the  individual  character  of  the  pioneer 
through  his  contact  with  the  untamed  forces  of  nature. 
These  traits  are  easily  traceable  to  the  influence  which 
the  wilderness  always  exerts  on  the  minds  of  civilized 
men,  the  men  who  by  force  of  circumstances  were 
compelled  to  develop  both  character  and  muscle  and 
who  became  the  subduers  of  unsubdued  nature.  This 
influence  of  the  forces  of  nature  has  exercised  its 
formative  power  in  the  consciousness  of  the  various 
nations  who  Hve  under  similar  conditions,  and  who 
spring  from  white  stock,  no  matter  in  what  parts  of 
the  globe  fortune  has  cast  their  hfe-lines.  It  does  not 
take  much  vision  to  predict  that  this  thinking  along 
similar  Hnes  is  bound  in  years  to  come  to  draw  these 

[lo] 


different  peoples  together  politically.  For  the  same- 
ness of  their  likes  will  find  its  counterpart  in  the  same- 
ness of  their  dislikes  and  prejudices — the  two  powerful 
elements  directing  the  national  poHcies  of  modern 
states. 

It  must  not  be  assumed  that  the  claim  is  here  made 
that  the  Canadians  and  the  Americans,  for  instance, 
are  sympathetic  on  every  subject.  How  could  they 
be  ?  Neither  are  the  Spaniards  and  the  Danes,  or  the 
Italians  and  the  Swedes  exactly  in  accord.  In  details 
of  thought  and  feeling  and  opinion  they  will  be  and 
must  be  different,  yes,  materially  different.  It  is  only 
along  general  lines  that  kinship  of  thought  can  be 
expected. 

While  the  vigorous  strain  of  the  practical  mental 
turn  of  mind  of  the  older  Western  or  white  man's 
civilization  is  likewise  prominent  in  this  new  American 
psychology,  and  while  the  exact  sciences  are  exercising 
their  powerful  influence  on  the  thought,  feelings,  and 
beliefs  of  the  people,  stiU  the  philosophy,  the  literature, 
and  often  the  idealistic  viewpoints  contained  so  fre- 
quently in  the  Oriental  civilizations  have  found  a 
hospitable  reception  in  the  new  nation's  mental 
processes.  That  the  rehgious  life  of  the  people  of 
Europe  and  of  the  "new  white  man's  country"  is 
very  much  the  same  possibly  explains  the  so-called 
"contradictions"  in  thought  and  character  which 
European  observers  are  so  fond  of  enlarging  upon. 

Since  it  is  obvious  that  difference  in  race,  en\'iron- 
ment,  and  historical  growth  made  the  Netherlands 

[ii] 


psychology  of  necessity  different  from  the  American, 
it  must  follow  that  there  always  will  be  consider- 
able difficulty  in  explaining  Netherlands  conditions  to 
American  readers,  and  vice  versa.  But  such  a  diffi- 
culty is  intensified  when  the  conditions  of  a  multitude 
of  Oriental  peoples,  all  endowed  with  an  Oriental 
mentality,  and  living  under  the  control  and  direction 
of  a  Western  power  whose  psychology  is  materially 
different  from  the  subject-race,  are  described  to  read- 
ers whose  thoughts  and  feelings  are  radically  different 
from  either  of  them. 

The  first  chapters  following,  being  merely  descrip- 
tive of  the  physical  conditions  of  the  East  India 
Islands,  and  written  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing the  necessary  background,  do  not  offer  much 
difficulty  along  these  lines.  But  in  writing  the  chap- 
ters bearing  on  economic  and  political  conditions  this 
difficulty  has  been  kept  constantly  in  mind,  and  an 
honest  effort  has  been  made  to  reduce  it  as  much 
as  possible.  Fortunately,  the  student  of  the  economic 
and  political  conditions  existing  in  the  Netherlands 
East  Indian  Colonies  is  not  confined  to  personal  ob- 
servation, or  to  the  reading  of  the  popular  travelogues, 
often  written  for  personal  satisfaction  and  always  to 
please  the  readers.  These  islands  have  been  visited 
for  decades  by  travelers  and  observers  of  great  experi- 
ence and  penetration  of  mind,  and  to  the  opinions  of 
these  scientists  reference  is  made  many  times  in  the 
following  pages. 


[12] 


CHAPTER  II.  A  FEW  GEOGRAPHICAL. 
GEOLOGICAL,  AND  TOPOGRAPHICAL 
FACTS 


Meaning  of  Insnlinde — Part  of  Malay  Archipelago — Extent  of 
great  Island  Empire — Longitude  and  latitude — Groups  of 
islands — Location  on  equator — Size  in  comparison  with 
United  States — Total  area — Population — Area  of  Sumatra — 
Area  of  Borneo — Area  of  Celebes — Area  of  New  Guinea — 
Views  of  scientists  as  to  connection  with  continents — Volcanic 
belt — ^Earthquakes — The  Klut — The  Krakatau — ^Mountains — 
Forests — Soil — Minerals 


A  FEW  GEOGRAPHICAL,  GEO- 
LOGICAL, and  TOPOGRAPHICAL 
FACTS 


HE  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  commonly 
known  as  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  are 
often  indicated  by  the  graceful  and  musical 
name  of  Insulinde,  meaning  "Island  India." 
InsuHnde  forms  the  major  part  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago;  in  fact  it  forms  the  whole  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago  with  the  exception  of  the  PhiHppine 
Islands  under  the  American  flag,  the  northern  part  of 
Borneo  and  the  eastern  part  of  New  Guinea  under  the 
British  flag,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  of 
Timor  under  the  Portuguese  flag. 

Insulinde  constitutes  a  great  island  empire,  situ- 
ated between  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  the 
mainland  of  Asia,  variously  known  as  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Malacca,  or  the  Federated  Malay  States, 
and  the  great  island  of  New  Guinea,  which  more 
properly  belongs  to  Australasia.  It  extends  from 
longitude  East  95''  to  141°,  and  from  latitude  North 
6°  to  1 1°,  and  may  therefore  be  called  an  island  chain 
between  the  southeast  point  of  Asia  and  the  northwest 
part  of  Austraha.  The  islands  are  divided  into  four 
large  groups,  viz.: 

1,  The  Greater  Sunda  Islands,  comprising  Su- 
matra, Borneo,  Java,  and  Celebes. 

2.  The  Lesser  Sunda  Islands,  comprising  Bali, 
Lombok,  Sumbawa,  Sumba,  Selor  Islands,  Wetar, 
Flores,  and  Timor. 

[15] 


3-  The  Moluccas,  by  which  is  meant  all  the  smaller 
islands  to  the  east  of  Celebes,  and  which  were  formerly 
known  as  the  "Spice  Islands." 

4.  New  Guinea,  being  that  part  of  New  Guinea 
which  belongs  to  the  Netherlands. 

These  islands  stretch  across  the  tropical  waters  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  the  southern  part  of  the  Chinese 
Sea,  the  Sea  of  Celebes,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They 
are  traversed  by  the  equator,  which  runs  through  the 
center  of  Borneo  and  Simiatra.  The  distances  are 
enormous,  for  from  the  extreme  east  to  the  extreme 
west  is  as  far  as  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 
This  island  empire  is  about  as  large  as  one-fourth  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  known  to  the  mother  country 
as  ''Oost-Indisch  Archipel, "  to  the  English  as  the 
"Malay  Archipelago,"  and  to  the  French  as  "I'Archi- 
pel  Asiatique."  Its  total  area  is  587,000  square 
miles,  or  about  forty-six  times  the  area  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, while  its  population,  according  to  the  census 
of  191 7,  was  over  47,000,000,  or  about  seven  times 
the  population  of  the  Netherlands.  Of  its  total  popu- 
lation 34,000,000  live  in  Java.  There  are  about 
140,000  white  people  scattered  over  the  whole  archi- 
pelago, of  whom  sHghtly  more  than  110,000  are  on 
the  island  of  Java.  This  includes  Hollanders  and 
white  men  of  all  other  nationalities. 

Java. — To  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  extent  of 
these  different  islands,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  state  that 
Java  and  the  adjoining  island  of  Madura  (from  an 
administrative  standpoint  they  are  one)  have  an  area 

[16] 


F15H  PONDS  OF  TJIPANAS,  JAVA 


of  about  50,000  square  miles,  or  about  as  large  as  the 
state  of  ^^  'ew  York. 

Smnc^ra. — Sumatra,  with  the  small  islands  im- 
mediately surrounding  it,  has  an  area  of  about 
162,000  square  miles,  or  about  equal  to  the  state  of 
California,  or  to  Great  Britain, 

Borneo. — The  whole  of  Borneo  has  an  area  of 
212,737  square  miles,  of  which  area  five-sevenths  is 
under  the  Dutch  flag.  This  part  is  as  large  as  the 
Republic  of  France. 

Celebes. — Celebes  and  the  immediately  adjoining 
islands  have  an  area  of  71,410  square  miles,  and  are 
therefore  considerably  larger  than  New  Zealand. 

New  Guinea. — That  part  of  New  Guinea  which  is 
under  Dutch  dominion  has  about  152,000  square  miles, 
and  is  about  the  size  of  the  Empire  of  Japan  proper. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  a  scientific  school  of 
which  A.  R.  Wallace  was  the  pioneer  (he  still  stands 
unchallenged  as  its  ablest  member),  Sumatra,  Java, 
and  Borneo  once  formed  the  southeast  part  of  the 
continent  of  Asia,  while  all  the  islands  to  the  east, 
beyond  Java  and  Borneo,  possibly  with  the  exception 
of  Celebes,  formed  part  of  the  former  Australasia  or 
Pacific  continents. 

One  of  the  chief  volcanic  belts  of  the  world  passes 
through  the  archipelago,  and  scores  of  active  volcanoes 
and  hundreds  of  extinct  ones  may  be  found  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  thence 
through  the  islands  of  Bali,  Lombok,  and  Sumbawa, 
running  north  toward  the  Philippines. 

[17] 


As  a  matter  of  course,  in  a  region  occupied  by  such 
a  vast  line  of  volcanoes,  earthquakes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence.  The  history  of  Java  records  several 
important  temblors,  one  of  which  took  place  only  a 
year  ago.  That  great  eruption  of  the  Klut  trans- 
formed into  steam  part  of  the  lake  which  had  formed 
in  its  crater,  and  caused  the  rest  of  it  violently  to 
overflow  its  borders.  A  large  stream  of  hot  and  cold 
liquid  mud  (called  lahar  by  the  natives)  devastated 
the  surrounding  country. 

The  most  noted  eruption  in  recent  years  was  that 
of  Krakatau,  in  August,  1883.  In  this  enormous  out- 
burst, the  greater  part  of  the  island  on  which  the 
volcano  was  situated  was  destroyed.  Flames  spread 
over  the  adjacent  coasts,  clouds  of  vapor  rose  to  an 
altitude  five  times  as  high  as  that  of  the  summit  of 
Mount  Blanc.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  noise  was 
heard  for  thousands  of  miles,  and  the  ashes  fell  over 
all  the  southern  part  of  Sumatra  and  western  Java. 
As  a  curiosity,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  ashes  practi- 
cally traveled  around  the  world.  They  rose  to  an 
enormous  altitude,  where  the  light  particles  were 
caught  and  carried  by  currents  of  the  atmosphere  to 
remote  places.  During  the  period  of  the  eruption  a 
peculiar  rosy  glow  in  the  skies  was  seen  over  a  large  part 
of  the  Pacific  Coast.  A  tidal  wave  seventy  to  eighty 
feet  high  swept  over  the  nearby  coasts  of  Java  and 
Sumatra,  carrying  death  and  devastation  in  its  wake. 

Each  island  has  a  central  mountain  region,  rather 
narrow  hill  lands  and  coastal   plains,   and  valleys 

[18] 


sloping  toward  the  sea.  Java  has  few  lakes,  and  no 
large  rivers  in  the  sense  of  the  large  American  or 
European  rivers.  The  hill  soil  is  generally  of  volcanic 
origin,  which  soon  disintegrates  under  the  warm  rays 
of  a  tropical  sun,  alternating  with  the  torrential  tropi- 
cal rains,  and  thus  becomes  a  soil  rich  in  plant  food. 

The  mountain-sides  from  the  bottom  of  the  valleys 
to  an  average  elevation  of  five  thousand  feet  are 
generally  covered  by  a  series  of  prosperous  planta- 
tions; from  that  line  to  the  summit  they  are  covered 
by  \drgin  forests.  Here  and  there  one  finds  a  great 
prairie  half-way  up  to  the  summit,  and  rolling  lands 
bordered  by  trees  and  shrubs,  reminding  one  of 
EngHsh  hunting-parks. 

The  poorer  lower  hills  in  Java  are  covered  by 
djati  (teak)  forests,  the  richer  by  rice  fields  or  sawahs 
of  the  natives.  All  the  lower  valleys  are  of  alluvial 
soil,  and  here,  besides  the  rice  crops  of  the  natives, 
great  sugar  and  tobacco  plantations  are  found.  The 
lower  valleys  also  produce  corn,  cassava,  hatuloes, 
peanuts,  cocoanut  pahns,  kapok  trees,  indigo,  vege- 
tables, and  fruits. 

While  the  other  large  islands  have,  to  a  large  extent, 
the  same  soil  formation  as  Java,  in  general,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  Celebes,  and  Guinea  have  larger  areas  of  less 
fertile  soil,  consisting  of  granite,  slate,  and  so-called 
primary  rock.  These  islands  have,  on  the  other  hand, 
some  remarkably  rich  regions,  for  instance  around 
Medan,  on  the  island  of  Sumatra.  In  the  last-named 
islands,  as  well  as  in  Borneo,  are  also  found  large 

[19] 


swamps  covered  by  primeval  forests  and  mangrove 
vegetation,  which  remind  one  strongly  of  the  swamps 
of  Florida. 

The  islands  have  no  great  natural  harbor  compa- 
rable to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  with  its  famous 
Golden  Gate,  but  there  are  a  number  of  small  natural 
harbors  with  suitable  roadsteads. 

In  Celebes  and  adjoining  islands  there  were 
recently  discovered  important  deposits  of  iron  ore 
containing  nickel.  In  Java,  Borneo,  and  Sumatra 
there  are  oil-fields  of  importance.  Tin  is  found  in 
great  quantities  on  the  islands  of  Banka,  Singkep,  and 
Billiton,  while  considerable  gold  is  mined  in  Sumatra. 
Coal  is  found  on  the  island  of  Sumatra  (Ombilin  and 
Palembang),  and  on  Borneo  (Pulu  Laut). 


[20] 


CHAPTER  III.    CLIMATE,  FLORA.  AND 

FAUNA 


Climate:    Comparison    with    other    tropical    countries    near 

equator — Monsoons — Seasons — ^Living    conditions    for    white 

men — ^Higher  altitudes — "Dry  season" 

Flora:     Virgin  forests — Casuarina  trees — Mountain  berries — 

Varieties    of    palms — Orchids — Alang-alang — Wild    flowers — ■ 

Wild  fruits — 'Domestic  fruits 

Fauna:    Two  groups,  Asiatic  origin  and  Australian  origin — • 

Wild    animals — Orang-outang — Tiger — Ape — Celebes    most 

remarkable  in  fauna — Domestic  animals 


CLIMATE,  FLORA,  AND  FAUNA 

HE  climate  in  Insulinde  is  t>TDically  tropical, 
there  being  only  about  three-quarters  of  an 
hour's  difference  between  the  longest  and  the 
shortest  day.  The  climate,  however,  shows 
one  marked  difference  from  that  of  tropical 
Africa  or  other  continents  in  or  near  the  equator,  for 
the  influence  of  the  sea  breezes  moderates  the  heat 
during  the  day  and  prevents  a  too-fast  cooling  off  at 
night. 

There  are  two  long  seasons  in  these  islands,  regu- 
lated by  alternating  monsoons,  or  trade  winds,  and 
two  very  short  seasons,  lasting  a  few  weeks  each  and 
covering  the  period  of  change  between  these  mon- 
soons. These  two  intermediate  periods  are  often 
marked  by  thunder  storms  and  considerable  wind. 
The  periods  of  the  west  monsoon  and  the  east  monsoon 
are  not  the  same  over  the  whole  archipelago.  To 
that  part  which  Hes  south  of  the  equator  the  west 
monsoon  usually  brings  rain,  while  the  east  monsoon 
brings  the  dry  season,  and  vice  versa  for  that  part 
which  Hes  north  of  the  equator.  In  Java  the  least 
rainfall  takes  place  in  the  season  between  the  first  of 
May  and  the  last  of  August,  while  the  greatest  precipi- 
tation takes  place  from  the  first  of  November  to  the 
first  of  January.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  these  are  general  conditions,  for  locally  they  are 
considerably  affected  by  the  direction  of  the  mountain 
chains  and  especially  by  altitude. 

[23] 


The  temperature  along  the  low  coast  is  rather 
oppressive  for  Europeans,  and  at  times  exceedingly- 
warm.  The  heat,  however,  even  in  these  places  is  no 
worse  than  in  Washington,  New  York,  or  Chicago 
during  the  hot  spells  of  summer.  In  fact  it  is  felt  far 
less  because  houses,  offices,  clothing,  and  living  condi- 
tions are  arranged  to  meet  this  high  temperature,  and 
because  no  white  man  or  woman  is  subjected  to  exces- 
sive physical  endeavors,  household  servants  and  other 
help  being  obtainable  at  reasonable  prices. 

While  people  in  the  more  northern  climate  have  a 
respite  from  summer  heat  during  the  winter  time,  such 
respite  is  not  denied  to  the  denizens  of  the  tropics, 
for,  whenever  financial  and  other  conditions  permit, 
they  can  readily  escape  the  heat  by  going  to  the  higher 
altitudes,  where  the  climate  is  delightful,  and  where 
one  needs  a  woolen  blanket  at  night  the  year  round. 
As  the  backbone  of  each  of  these  islands  is  a  mountain 
range,  and  the  islands  are  mostly  narrow,  these  higher 
altitudes  can  be  speedily  reached  from  almost  every 
direction. 

What  is  termed  the  "dry  season"  is  not  an 
absolutely  rainless  season  in  Insulinde.  It  differs 
greatly  from  the  dry  season  in  California,  Nevada,  or 
Arizona.  Only  in  some  of  the  smaller  islands,  in  the 
extreme  southeastern  part  of  the  archipelago,  do  we 
find  really  dry  seasons  in  the  sense  that  we  know  them 
in  the  west  and  southwestern  part  of  the  United 
States.  Sometimes,  and  exceptionally,  the  periods 
between  May  and  August  have  proved  extremely  dry 

[24] 


in  Java,  with  no  rainfall  except  in  the  high  mountains. 
Europeans  who  observe  good  habits  can  live  for  years 
in  the  archipelago  and  enjoy  excellent  health.  It  is 
nevertheless  advisable  that  at  stated  periods,  say 
every  five  or  six  years,  they  take  a  vacation  and  enjoy 
a  cooler  climate  in  a  low  altitude.  Affairs  are  almost 
invariably  arranged  to  meet  this  requirement. 

Flora. — The  flora  of  Insulinde  is  the  usual  tropical 
flora.  Most  of  the  land  that  has  not  been  touched  by 
the  hand  of  man  is  covered  with  virgin  forests.  In 
the  higher  altitudes  one  finds  vegetation  which  some- 
what resembles  that  of  the  western  lower  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas.  Generally  speaking,  the  forests  of 
Insulinde,  no  matter  where  situated,  offer  a  far  larger 
variety  of  trees  than  one  finds  in  the  temperate  zones. 
The  trees  are  more  mixed,  large  groups  of  the  same 
varieties  being  rarely  found. 

In  eastern  Java  one  finds  mountain  slopes  covered 
by  the  Australian  Casuarina,  which  reminds  one 
strongly  of  a  forest  of  scrub  pines.  When  traveling 
from  the  mountain  resort  Tosari  to  the  Crater  Bromo 
one  travels  almost  continuously  through  these  Casua- 
rina forests. 

In  the  mountains  of  Java  one  finds  a  great  many 
of  the  wood  berries  (Vaccinium),  and  the  Javanese 
"  edelweiss."  Bamboos  cover  whole  mountain  slopes. 
Palms  are  found  everywhere.  Large  numbers  of 
cocoanut  palms  are  found  all  over  the  islands,  while 
climbing  plants  encircle  a  great  many  trunks  of  trees 
in  the  forests.     Some  of  them  twist  themselves  around 

[25] 


the  supporting  trunks  and  partially  disappear  in  them. 
Others,  by  means  of  aerial  roots,  adhere  even  to  the 
very  smooth  trunks.  Others  have  tendrils  or  hooks. 
A  great  profusion  of  orchids,  ferns,  and  mosses  is 
found,  and  there  are  enormous  quantities  of  parasites. 
Wherever  forests  have  been  cleared,  and  for  some 
reason  or  other  the  ground  is  not  tilled,  tough  high 
grass  known  as  alang-alang  covers  the  ground.  One 
thing  which  impresses  the  traveler  is  the  fact  that 
while  Insulinde  has  a  bewildering  variety  of  wild 
flowers,  wherever  the  land  is  cultivated  one  sees  far 
fewer  flowers  than  in  America,  Japan,  or  Europe. 
Of  the  wild  fruits  Wallace  writes: 

]\Iany  persons  in  Europe  are  under  the  impression  that 
fruits  of  delicious  flavor  abound  in  the  tropical  forests,  and 
they  will  no  doubt  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  truly  wild 
fruits  of  this  grand  and  luxuriant  archipelago,  the  vegetation 
of  which  will  vie  with  that  of  any  part  of  the  world,  are  in 
almost  every  island  inferior  in  abundance  and  quality  to  those 
of  Britain.  Wild  strawberries  and  raspberries  are  found  in 
some  places,  but  they  are  such  poor,  tasteless  things  as  to  be 
hardly  worth  eating,  and  there  is  nothing  to  compare  with 
our  blackberries  and  other  berries.  All  of  the  fine  tropical 
fruits  are  as  much  cultivated  productions  as  our  apples, 
peaches,  and  plums,  and  their  wild  prototypes,  when  found, 
are  generally  either  tasteless  or  uneatable. 

At  the  present  time  a  great  diversity  of  fruits  is 
grown  in  Insulinde,  some  of  which  were  introduced  by 
the  Hindus  and  the  Chinese,  but  the  greater  majority 
by  the  white  man.  The  principal  fruits  now  used  are 
the  kalapa  (cocoanut)  and  the  pisang  (banana),  while 

[26] 


THE  FLORA  OF  JAVA 


the  mangosteen,  durian,  mango,  the  melon,  the  djeroek 
(both  as  fresh  fruit  and  preserves),  the  pompolomoes, 
the  ananas  (pineapple),  the  tamarind,  and  many 
others  are  popular. 

Fauna. — The  fauna  in  Insulinde,  like  the  flora,  is 
divided  into  two  main  groups,  that  is,  the  fauna  of 
Asiatic  origin  and  the  fauna  of  AustraHan  origin.  The 
fauna  of  the  Sunda  Islands  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Peninsula  of  IMalacca,  while  the  fauna  and  flora  of 
New  Guinea  and  surrounding  islands  are  of  AustraHan 
character.  The  islands  lying  between  these  two  great 
groups,  such  as  Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  etc.,  seem  to 
form  a  meeting-ground,  and  later  investigations  have 
shown  that  the  sharp  division  line  drawn  by  Wallace 
between  Celebes  and  Borneo,  and  between  BaH  and 
Lombok,  which  in  his  opinion  was  the  definite  and 
absolute  di\asion  line,  both  ethnologically  and  botani- 
cally  speaking,  was  too  closely  drawn. 

The  orang-outang  is  common  both  in  Sumatra  and 
Borneo,  but  is  not  found  in  Java,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  tiger  is  found  in  Sumatra  and  Java,  but  not 
in  Borneo.  A  number  of  apes  are  found  in  all  the 
larger  Sunda  Islands.  Both  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra 
are  found  the  elephant  and  tapir.  Strange  to  say,  the 
former  has  its  relatives  in  Africa,  the  latter  in  South 
America,  and  both  animals  are  unknown  in  Java. 
While  in  Java  is  found  one  species  of  the  rhinoceros, 
a  quite  difterent  species  is  found  in  Borneo  and 
Sumatra.  Peacocks  in  a  wild  state  are  found  all  over 
the  islands  from  British  India  to  Java.     In  the  latter 

[27] 


island  parrots  are  very  scarce,  while  they  abound  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  archipelago,  being  of  Australian 
origin. 

The  island  of  Celebes  is  presumed  to  have  the  most 
remarkable  fauna  in  InsuHnde,  as  many  of  its  species 
do  not  seem  to  have  any  near  relatives  in  any  of  the 
surrounding  islands,  but  seem  to  have  distant  relatives 
in  far-away  Europe  and  Africa.  Besides,  it  is  here 
that  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  two  great  classes — 
Asiatic  and  Austrahan — ^meet  and  intermingle. 

On  the  other  hand  the  fauna  of  New  Guinea  is  very 
much  the  same  as  that  of  Australia,  though  its  flora 
is  quite  different,  due  to  the  pronounced  difference  in 
the  two  climates.  The  wild  buffalo,  while  found  in 
Malacca,  is  lacking  in  Insulinde,  but  the  carabao,  or 
tame  buffalo,  whose  forefathers  belong  in  India,  is 
seen  all  over  the  islands.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
banting,  or  wild  cow,  is  found  in  small  and  large  droves 
in  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  often  terrorizing  the 
population.  Today  one  finds  among  the  domestic 
animals  most  of  those  seen  in  any  tropical  climate. 


[28] 


CHAPTER  IV.    A  FEW  ETHNOLOGICAL 
FACTS,  and  the  POPULATION  OF  TODAY 


Wallace's  division  of  Malay  peoples  into  two  groups:  Malays 
and  Papuans — Origin — Migration — Aborigines — Division  line — 
Mixed  races — Characteristics  of  each  race — Division  line 
same  as  that  of  fauna  and  flora — Papuan's  inability  to  survive 
contact  with  white  man — Malays  increase  in  populations — 
Three  tribes — Malays  proper — ^Javanese — B  urges — Races  on 
other  islands — Varying  descriptions  by  different  authors — 
Appearance  of  Malays — Courtesy — Trace  of  cruelty — Divisions 
as  to  evolution — ^Agricultural  class  most  advanced — Semi- 
nomads — Hunters  and  fishermen  lowest — Seventy-five  per 
cent  of  people  of  Java  in  agricultural  pursuits — Chinese — 
Total  number  foreign  Orientals — Arabs — Protection  of  foreign 
Orientals — Some  Orientals  on  equal  footing  with  white  man 


A  FEW  ETHNOLOGICAL  FACTS 
and  the  POPULATION  OF  TODAY 


ALLACE  classifies  the  whole  of  the  peoples 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago  into  two  main 
groups,  viz.,  the  Malays  and  the  Papuans, 
and  states  that  these  two  have  no  traceable 
afi&nity  to  each  other. 
The  Malays  are  of  Asiatic  origin,  while  the 
Papuans  are  of  Pacific  Island  or  Polynesian  origin. 
The  former  inhabit  the  western  part  of  the  archipel- 
ago, while  the  latter  are  found  in  the  eastern  islands. 
Neither  of  these  peoples  appears  to  be  aboriginal.* 
On  the  contrary  each  of  them  must  have  come  by  some 
migratory  wave,  either  from  the  east  or  the  west, 
driving  the  aborigines  to  the  more  remote  regions  of 
the  mountains  of  far-away  islands.  Approximately 
speaking,  the  di\asion  line  of  these  two  great  nationali- 
ties is  a  line  commencing  at  the  extreme  northern  part 
of  the  island  of  Celebes,  thence  to  the  island  of  Gilolo, 
thence  west  to  the  island  of  Ceram,  curving  around 
the  west  end  of  Flores.  As  might  be  expected,  in 
several  places  and  in  the  "border"  islands  especially, 
the  races  are  mixed. 

'  The  well-known  Dutch  anthropologist,  Professor  Dubois,  dis- 
covered in  the  pliocene  formation  of  the  Residency  of  Rembang, 
Java,  the  skull  of  a  creature,  pithecanthropus  erectus,  which  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  the  link  between  the  animal  and  the  first  prehistoric 
man.  The  discovery  has  attracted  widespread  attention  in  the 
scientific  world.  A  reproduction  may  be  found  in  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  New  York  City. 

[31] 


The  Malay  race  inhabiting  the  islands  west  of  this 
line  resembles  the  East  Asian  population,  while  the 
Papuan  race  inhabiting  the  islands  east  of  this  line 
are,  like  the  Polynesian  race,  spread  everywhere  over 
the  Pacific.  These  races  are  entirely  distinct  from 
each  other,  not  only  in  physique,  but  also  in  men- 
tality. The  former  are  Ughter  in  color,  being  light 
brown  in  skin,  small  of  stature,  straight-haired, 
and  smooth-muscled,  reserved,  bashful,  cold,  and 
undemonstrative,  and  of  far  more  advanced  civiliza- 
tion. This  advanced  civilization  is  of  course  mostly 
due  to  their  continuous  contact  with  the  Hindus, 
Chinese,  and  Arabs,  and  later  with  the  white  man. 
This  race  has  mixed  in  many  instances  with  the 
aborigines,  and  the  variation  of  climatic  and  Hving 
conditions  existing  in  the  different  islands  has,  in  the 
course  of  centuries,  produced  many  different  types  of 
Malays.  The  Papuans  are  darker  of  skin,  and  more 
frizzled  of  hair,  taller  of  stature,  bearded,  and  hairy- 
bodied,  more  energetic,  demonstrative,  and  laughter- 
loving  like  the  negro.  These  facts  led  Professor 
Hawley  to  claim  that  the  Papuans  are  allied  to  the 
negroes  of  Africa.  Incidentally  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  ethnological  division  line  is  also,  to  a  very  great 
extent,  the  division  line  between  the  two  different 
flora  and  fauna,  modified  by  the  fact  that  men  are 
more  migratory  than  plants  or  animals. 

A  marked  distinction  between  the  two  races  is 
their  respective  abihty  to  survive  contact  with  the 
white  man.    The  Polynesians  generally  seemed  to  be 

[32] 


A  JAVANESE  NOBLEWOMAN 


doomed  to  a  comparatively  early  extinction,  and  their 
subdivision,  the  Papuans,  will  hardly  be  able  to  escape 
this  if  colonization  should  be  turned  to  Guinea,  for 
this  warlike,  energetic  people  will  not  submit  to  servi- 
tude of  any  kind,  or,  for  that  matter,  to  modern  self- 
discipline  in  any  form.  The  Malay  race,  on  the  other 
hand,  appears  not  only  to  thrive  under  the  white 
man's  regime,  but  to  increase  rapidly  in  numbers. 

The  Malays  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  may 
be  classified  under  several  nations  and  tribes,  some 
civilized,  some  semi-civilized,  and  some  still  semi- 
savage.    The  three  divisions  in  the  first  class  are: 

First,  the  Malays  proper  who  are  mostly  Moham- 
medans, inhabiting  the  Federated  Malay  States 
(Malacca),  and  the  coast  regions  of  Sumatra  and 
Borneo,  and  who  are  found  in  the  coast  settlements  of 
almost  all  the  other  islands.  As  stated  elsewhere, 
they  all  speak  the  Malay  language  and  use  the  Arabic 
characters  in  their  written  language. 

Second,  the  Javanese,  including  the  Sundanese 
and  Madurese.  They  are  likewise  Mohammedans  in 
religion.  They  use  the  Kawi  languages,  and  the 
Javanese  and  Madurese  have  a  native  system  of 
characters  for  their  writing.  Besides  Java  they  have 
colonies  in  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  and  inhabit  Madura, 
Bali,  and  part  of  Lombok.  In  the  two  last-named 
islands  they  are  Brahmanistic.  They  have  advanced 
quite  considerably  in  civilization. 

Third,  the  Burges,  Buginese,  and  Makassars,  of 
Celebes  and  Svunbawa.    They  speak  the  Burges  and 

[33] 


Makassar  languages,  and  have  two  native  systems  of 
characters  for  writing. 

The  Molucca-Malays  may  be  called  semi-civilized; 
they  are  Mohammedans,  and  speak  many  dialects. 
In  addition  there  are,  among  the  savage  or  half-savage 
Malays,  the  Battaks  and  various  wild  tribes  in  Sumatra, 
the  Dayaks  in  Borneo,  and  several  minor  tribes.  It 
is  the  Malays  who,  numerically,  as  well  as  intellec- 
tually, form  the  most  important  part  of  the  population 
of  this  island  empire.  Some  of  the  smaller  islands  are 
inhabited  by  aboriginal  tribes,  several  of  which  are 
"Alfoers, "  sometimes  translated  to  mean  "mountain 
savages."  These  tribes  inhabit  numerous  islands 
near  Celebes  and  Ceram,  and  are  almost  always 
heathens.  In  Guinea  there  are  several  tribes  called 
"Arfaks, "  of  which  the  Karons  obtained  an  undesir- 
able reputation  for  cannibalism. 

As  all  these  peoples  differ  greatly  in  language 
(there  are  almost  sixty  languages  and  dialects  spoken 
in  the  islands)  and  also  in  the  stage  of  their  evolution, 
it  is  but  natural  that  different  writers  have  given 
radically  different  descriptions  of  their  character, 
habits,  etc.,  this  depending  on  the  particular  part  of 
the  archipelago  where  they  made  their  observations. 

The  Malay,  generally  speaking,  either  male  or 
female,  is  not  handsome  from  a  European  standpoint. 
He  is  generally  short  of  stature,  the  face  flat  and 
broad.  Like  many  other  Oriental  peoples,  the  Malays 
when  young  often  attain  a  very  pleasing  appearance, 
almost  bordering  on   the   attractive.    Lax  morals, 

[34] 


feasting,  riotous  living  at  some  times,  and  at  other 
times  privation  and  excessive  hard  work,  soon  spoil 
their  appearance. 

In  character  they  are  passive,  unless  aroused  to 
great  anger.  The  men  almost  always  show  reserve 
and  indifference.  They  are  slow  in  speech  and  appear 
slow  in  thought,  a  fact  which  is  many  times  mis- 
leading. When  one  is  traveUng  over  the  islands  one 
is  continually  struck  by  their  courtesy  and  politeness 
toward  one  another  and  toward  strangers.  One  can 
say  truly  that  every  Javanese  in  his  kampong 
(native's  quarter)  in  the  city  is  a  gentleman  in  man- 
ners. As  far  as  these  chiefs  and  nobles  are  concerned, 
their  courtesy  appears  to  be  flawless  and  makes  one 
sometimes  ashamed  of  his  more  brusque  Western 
manners.  There  is  of  course  a  trace  of  cruelty  in 
their  character,  but  this  is  true  of  most  Asiatics, 

The  native  population  is  subdivided  into  a  great 
many  groups,  all  differing  in  stage  of  evolution,  in  lan- 
guage, in  political  status,  and  especially  in  the  compo- 
sition of  their  race,  the  latter  depending  on  their 
purity  or  cross-breeding.  Those  races  which  have  de- 
voted their  energies  principally  to  agricultural  pur- 
suits— the  Menangkabaus  and  Palembangs  of  Sumatra 
(all  of  mixed  Hindu  descent),  the  Balmese  in  Bali, 
and  especially  the  Javanese,  the  Sundanese,  and  the 
Madurese  in  Java — are  most  advanced.  Those  who 
live  a  semi-nomadic  life  come  next  in  the  scale  of 
civilization,  while  those  who  live  entirely  as  hunters 
and  fishermen  are  the  lowest.     In  Java  about  75  per 

[35I. 


cent  of  the  population  is  directly  or  indirectly  con- 
nected with  agricultural  pursuits;  in  New  Guinea  less 
than  I  per  cent  of  the  Papuans  are  farmers. 

Among  the  foreigners  the  Chinese  take  an  impor- 
tant part.  The  Chinese  have  been  in  these  lands,  in 
considerable  numbers,  for  centuries.  Today  they  are 
found  in  almost  all  coast  towns  as  merchants.  In  one 
part  of  Western  Borneo  especially  these  industrious 
''Sons  of  Heaven"  hold  a  very  important  place  in  the 
agricultural  development  of  the  region.  In  the  great 
commercial  centers,  such  as  Surabaya,  Samarang, 
Batavia,  Deli,  Palembang,  etc.,  many  wealthy  Chinese 
residents  are  found,  who  on  account  of  their  pubhc 
spirit  constitute  a  distinctly  good  influence  in  the 
community.  In  the  islands  of  Banka  and  BiUiton  a 
great  number  of  Chinese  coolies  are  engaged  in  the  tin 
mines,  while  they  are  found  in  similar  capacities  in 
the  gold  and  coal  mines  and  on  the  tobacco  estates  of 
Sumatra.  All  told  there  are  about  700,000  foreign 
Orientals  in  Insulinde,  the  majority  of  whom  are 
Chinese. 

Next  in  importance  come  the  Arabs,  who  are  shop- 
keepers and  coast  navigators.  A  great  many  are 
usurers,  and  the  fact  that  they  come  from  Arabia,  a 
country  sacred  to  Mohammedans,  seems  to  give  them 
special  prestige  and  advantage.  The  Chinese  and 
Arabs  are  recognized  by  the  Netherlands  East  Indian 
government  as  standing  apart  from  the  other  Orien- 
tals. There  are  certain  officials  known  as  Chinese 
majors,  captains,  and  lieutenants,  and  Arab  captains 

[36] 


and  lieutenants,  who  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
general  to  assist  in  the  maintenance  of  order  among 
their  own  people  and  to  give  advice  to  the  local 
authorities  whenever  requested. 

The  Japanese  have  been  placed  on  the  same  foot- 
ing as  the  Europeans.  Together  there  are  between 
139,000  and  140,000  of  such  residents  scattered  all 
over  Insulinde,  among  whom  the  Hollanders,  of 
course,  preponderate.  They  are  mostly  officials,  oj6&- 
cers  of  the  army  and  navy,  bankers,  merchants, 
scientists,  teachers,  estate  managers,  and  technical, 
commercial,  and  estate  employees. 


[37I 

.•iHv'H46 


CHAPTER  V.  THE  HISTORICAL  TITLE 
OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  EAST 
INDIAN  COLONIES 

THE  PREHISTORIC  PERIOD— THE  HINDU  PERIOD— THE 
EARLY  EUROPEAN  NAVIGATORS 


Java,  original  name  of  whole  archipelago — Marco  Polo's  use 
of  name — Early  history  imperfectly  known — Kavi  literature — 
Hindu  legends — Visit  of  Hindu  merchants — Introduction  of 
Buddhist  religion — ^Temples  left  by  Hindus — Chinese  annals — 
Route  of  early  traders — Spice  trade — History  of  Island  of 
Java — ^Ambassadors  to  China  425  B.C. — State  of  Mataram — 
Boro-Budur  Temple  built — Disappearance  of  Mataram  at 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century — Kingdom  of  Madjapahit, 
1 294-1478 — DecHne  of  Buddhist  influence — EstabHshment  of 
Mohammedan  religion — State  of  Giri — Visits  of  Chinese 
merchants — Entire  lack  of  compact  nation — Early  history  of 
Celebes — Less  affected  by  Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism 
than  Java — First  description  by  Portuguese — Tribes — Early 
history  of  Borneo — Inhabitants — Sultanate  of  Broenei — 
Export  of  gold  dust,  etc. — Early  history  of  Sumatra — On 
route  of  spice  traders — Stopping-places  for  Hindus  and  Chi- 
nese— Never  political  entity — Sumatra  channel  of  Buddhist 
religion,  500-750  a.d. — Channel  of  Islam  religion,  1250- 
1400  A.D. — Chinese  annals — Visits  of  Arabs — Marco  Polo — 
Saracen  merchants — State  of  Atjeh — Ejection  of  Portuguese, 
1 52 1 — Early  history  of  Moluccas — Spice  Islands — ^Tribes — 
d'Albuquerque,  1511 — ^Wars  with  Sultans — De  Brito — Drake, 
1579 — Hollanders,  1598 — Struggle  for  control  of  spice  trade — 
Debt  of  world  to  Portuguese  navigators  and  colonizers — 
Early  history  of  small  Sunda  Islands — Names — ^Inhabitants — 
Hindu  influence 


THE  HISTORICAL  TITLE  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  EAST 
INDIAN  COLONIES 


THE   PREHISTORIC  PERIOD 

AVA  is  now  the  name  of  the  most  important 
island  in  this  archipelago,  but  many  believe 
that  Djawa,  Java,  or  Jawa,  was  originally 
appHed  to  the  whole  Malay  Archipelago, 
and  that  Marco  Polo  used  it  in  that  sense. 


All  authorities  agree  that  the  early  history  of  Java 
or  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  in  general  is  only  im- 
perfectly known.  Historians  have  endeavored  to 
piece  together,  in  one  intelligible,  consecutive  nar- 
rative, the  early  native  ballads  and  chronicles,  but 
they  invariably  find  that  these  are  far  from  reHable, 
giving  rise  to  conflict  in  dates.  There  is  a  body  of 
writings  known  as  the  "Kavi"  or  ''Kawi"  literature 
(Basa  Kavi),'  that  is  the  language  of  poetry,  though 
some  of  it  is  prose.  Even  from  this,  however,  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  construct  a  history,  for  the  earlier 
as  well  as  the  later  babads  (native  chronicles)  are 
chronologically  contradictory  and  unreliable.  Some 
authors  have  endeavored  to  construct  a  history  from 
what  can  be  inferred  from  the  geological  conditions 
and  from  the  oral  and  written  traditions.  For  a  great 
many  years  these  traditions,  which  may  be  compared 
with  European  ballads  or  folksongs,  had  the  attention 

'  See  Raffles,  History  of  Java,  translation  of  Brild-Joedi;  also 
Kern's  Kawi  Studies,  1871. 

[41] 


of  Dutch  authors  and  pubhcists.  Here  and  there  we 
find  other  disconnected  writings  which  give  us  some- 
thing of  the  local  color. 

In  1877  Cohen  Stuart  pubhshed  the  modern 
Javanese  version  of  the  Brata  Yuda  {Conflict  of  the 
Bharatas),  a  famous  epic.  Professor  Kern  gave 
special  attention  to  the  Ardjuna  Wiwaha  (marriage 
festival  of  Ardjuna),  which  he  believes  originated  in 
the  eleventh  century.  Very  numerous  are  the  wayungs 
or  puppet-shadow-plays,  which  are  usually  based  on 
Hindu  legends.'  In  order  to  understand  them  one 
must  be  well  versed  in  Hindu  history  and  folklore. 

The  writer  had  the  privilege  of  witnessing  a  very 
elaborate  ivayung  play,  given  in  the  month  of  August, 
19 19,  at  the  home  of  the  Captain  of  the  Chinese  in 
Djokjakarta.  A  large  screen  was  placed  in  the  center 
of  the  room,  on  which  were  projected  the  shadows  of 
grotesque  figures,  through  the  medium  of  puppets  cut 
from  carabao  leather  and  delicately  perforated.  The 
audience  sat  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  screen  from 
the  operator.  The  play  had  gone  on  for  more  than 
a  day,  and  the  audience  seemed  keenly  to  relish  the 
fables  presented. 

A  few  days  afterward,  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
Resident  of  Surakarta,  the  sultan  of  the  minor  Sultan- 
ate (Pangeran  Adipati  Ario  Mankoe  Negoro),  a  highly 
educated  gentleman  who  had  passed  his  examination 
as  an  officer  in  the  Dutch  army,  and  who  held  the 

'  See  H.  C.  Humme,  Abiasa,  een  Javaansche  looneelshik  (a 
Javanese  play),  The  Hague,  1878. 

[42] 


rank  of  Dutch  major  and  spoke  Dutch  fluently, 
showed  the  writer  his  magnificent  collection  of  these 
wayung  puppets.  He  also  staged  a  Hindu  perform- 
ance, where  dancers  in  the  most  gorgeous  costumes 
rendered  a  Hindu  epic  in  motion.  Every  Javanese 
noble  has  an  elaborate  set  of  these  puppets,  and  also 
court  dancers. 

The  present  wayung  plays  of  Hindu  origin  had 
their  forerunners  in  the  still-older  native  shadow 
plays,  which  were  generally  presented  in  the  forest  by 
the  "Sjamaan. "  These  plays  were  connected  with 
a  qualified  ancestor-worship,  a  distant  relative  of  the 
Shinto  cult  of  Japan.  The  spirits  of  ancestors  were 
supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  shadows  on  the 
screen,  and  their  great  and  noble  deeds  were  the  topics 
of  the  plays.  In  Sanskrit  literature  the  "Beast 
Fables"  were  of  great  importance,  and  in  the  Hindu- 
Javanese  literature  we  find  identical  fables.^ 

THE   HINDU  PERIOD 

The  island  now  called  Java  was  known  to  the 
Western  world  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era. 
Ptolemaeus,  the  Greek  geographer,  called  it  Jabidore 
(150  A.D.).  It  was  likewise  called  Jawadwipa,  mean- 
ing "Barley  Island,"  the  early  visitors  confusing  the 
ripe  rice  with  ripe  barley.  That  these  islands,  espe- 
cially Java  and  Sumatra,  were  visited  during  this  early 
period,  by  merchants  from  Hindustan,  who  remained 
for  some  time,  is  now  well  established.    In  fact  there  are 

'  See  W.  Palmer  van  den  Broek,  Javaansclie  Veriellingen,  Java- 
nese Folklore,  1878. 

[43I 


even  today  small  settlements  in  Sumatra,  near  Palem- 
bang  for  instance,  where  the  advanced  state  of 
civilization  is  directly  traceable  to  the  influence  of  the 
descendants  of  these  early  visitors. 

Probably  the  Hindus  brought  with  them  their 
Buddhist  religion,  as  aU  the  old  native  records  prove 
that  this  religion  flourished  in  the  islands  from  the 
first  centuries  of  our  era.  It  fostered  and  developed 
a  civilization  which  is  still  evidenced  by  temples, 
statues,  and  tombs  of  great  architectural  merit. 
These  temples  are  found  in  eastern  and  middle  Java, 
a  very  few  being  intact  and  a  great  many  more  being 
in  course  of  restoration  by  the  government.  The 
famous  Boro-Budur,  and  the  noted  Tjandi  Sewoe 
(Thousand  Temples),  situated  near  Djokjakarta,  in 
the  very  center  of  Java,  are  best  known  to  travelers. 
Eventually  all  these  temples  will  be  restored. 

The  construction  of  most  of  the  temples  throws 
a  curious  sideHght  on  the  Hindu  civilization  which 
gave  them  birth.  For,  while  they  are  sometimes  very 
beautiful  in  outline,  the  stones  are  piled  loosely  on  one 
another,  without  cement  or  other  binding  material, 
thus  making  them  an  easy  prey  to  the  continuous 
earthquakes  with  which  the  ancient  Hindus  must 
have  been  well  acquainted. 

The  early  history  of  Java  from  Javanese-Hindu 
sources  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  of  reconstruction, 
but  the  Chinese  annals  throw  some  light  upon  it.^ 
The  old  Chinese  annals  confirm  the  fact  that  Hindus 

'  See  Van  der  Lith,  Merveilles  de  I'lnde. 
[44] 


THOUSAND  TEMPLES  NEAR  DJOKJAKARTA.  JAVA 


IN  THE  PREANGER  REGENCIES 


from  Ceylon,  Kalinga,  and  Malacca  visited  the  islands 
in  the  first  years  of  our  era/  bringing  with  them  their 
religion  and  statecraft.  They  soon  appeared  in  such 
numbers  that  they  were  able  to  dominate  the  abo- 
rigines. The  Chinese  annals  also  indicate  with  reason- 
able correctness  the  route  which  the  early  traders 
followed  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  spices  first  to 
Rome,  and  later  to  the  northern  Italian  cities.  This 
route  followed  Ambon,  Banda,  the  north  coast  of 
Bali  and  Lombok,  the  north  coast  of  Java,  east  coast 
of  Sumatra  (between  that  island  and  Banka),  and  the 
west  coast  of  Malacca.  Here  the  route  merged  into 
the  general  trade  route  from  China,  going  its  way  via 
Legor  to  Sanggora  or  Patani.  Up  to  this  point  coast 
navigation  was  the  mode  of  transportation,  the 
navigators  presumably  remaining  as  much  as  possible 
within  the  shelter  of  the  coast.  But  from  there  a 
caravan  route  went  its  way  overland  to  Toensoen 
(later  Kalah),  and  hence  to  Alexandria,  whence  the 
goods  were  shipped  to  Byzantium  (Constantinople) 
and  Rome. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  transportation  along 
the  eastern  part  of  this  great  trade  route  was  first  in 
the  hands  of  the  Hindus  from  the  mainland  of  Asia, 
and  that  later  it  came  mostly  into  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese  until  600  a.d.,  when  the  Hindu  states  in 
Java  had  grown  powerful  enough  to  control  the  spice 
trade  themselves.  It  must  have  been  a  very  ancient 
business,  this  spice  trade,  for  cloves  which  grow  only 

'Ibid. 

[45] 


in  the  Moluccas  were  known  in  Rome  in  the  first  few 
centuries  after  Christ.* 

During  the  last  decades  very  extensive  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  of  inscriptions  found  on  stones 
in  temples  and  elsewhere.  Slowly  but  surely  the 
early  history  of  the  islands  will  become  clear. 

Java. — Most  of  the  inscriptions  bear  out  the 
Chinese  records,  and  make  the  visualization  of  Java's 
early  history  fairly  possible.  It  seems  to  be  well 
established  that  as  early  as  425  a.d.  the  king  of 
West  Java  (Taroema),  sent  an  ambassador  to  the 
Chinese  emperor.  Prior  to  this  (415  a.d.)  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  Fa  Hieii  had  visited  Java,  remaining 
for  five  months.  West  Java  was  then,  as  now, 
inhabited  by  the  Sundanese  peoples. 

The  Annals  of  the  Fang  Dynasty  (618-906  a.d.) 
very  often  mention  a  kingdom  generally  called 
"Kaling."  It  is  significant  that  even  so  early  as  this 
Kaling  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  Djava.  There 
seems  to  have  been  an  important  commerce  between 
the  two  countries,  and  ambassadors  were  often  sent 
back  and  forth. 

In  Middle  Java,  where  the  Javanese  proper  lived, 
the  state  of  Mataram  (now  the  Residencies  of  Kedu, 
Djokjakarta,  and  Surakarta)  came  into  prominence 
in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  It  was  here  that 
the  great  Buddhist  temples  were  built,  of  which  the 
Boro-Budur  before  mentioned  is  the  most  famous.     It 

'  See  Dr.  Brandes'  Verhandelingen,  Bataafsch  genoolschap  van 
kunslen  en  wetenschappen,  Vol.  XLIX,  1896. 

[46] 


is  presumed  that  the  construction  was  started  in  850 
and  was  finished  several  decades  later.  This  monu- 
ment is  not  a  real  temple,  in  the  sense  that  one  can 
enter  it,  but  rather  a  sacred  hill,  covered  with  masonry. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  the  depository  of  part  of  the 
sacred  ashes  of  Buddha.  It  is  one  of  the  foremost 
Buddhist  monuments  today  existing  in  the  world. 
It  attracts  travelers  from  all  over  the  globe.  One  can- 
not say  that  it  has  four  sides,  but  rather  sixteen  sides, 
like  faces.  The  covering  stones  are  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  on  the  sides  are  carved  scenes  from  the  Ufe  of  the 
first  Buddha.  One  versed  in  the  history  of  the 
Buddhist  religion  can  follow  these  carved  forms  from 
stone  to  stone,  and  from  terrace  to  terrace,  reading 
one  consecutive  story  of  great  historical  value. 

At  the  time  that  Java  was  threatened  by  the 
Mohammedans,  the  devoted  Hindus  covered  this 
monument  with  soil.  It  was  really  discovered  and 
uncovered  during  the  EngHsh  occupation.  The  first 
excavaton  was  made  under  the  direction  of  Governor 
Raffles.  Since  that  time  Netherlands  geologists  have 
reinforced  the  base,  and  have  otherwise  taken  meas- 
ures to  preserve  this  famous  Buddhist  monument. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  for  ages  to  come  this  monument 
will  remain  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  ancient  Buddhist 
civilization  in  Java.  The  writer  visited  this  monu- 
ment, spending  the  night  at  the  little  resting-place 
maintained  by  the  government  at  the  foot  of  the 
temple.  A  climb  to  the  different  terraces  by  moon- 
light gives  to  the  eye  a  picture  never  to  be  forgotten, 

[47] 


and  one  which  can  be  rivaled  only  by  a  visit  to  the  same 
place  at  sunrise,  when  the  warm  tropical  sun  of  Java 
lights  up  the  eastern  side  of  the  terraces  with  successive 
and  ever-increasing  waves  of  soft  radiance,  revealing 
in  its  pristine  beauty  the  ancient  carving  on  the  stones. 

The  state  of  Mataram  seems  to  have  disappeared 
in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century.  It  is  very 
likely  that  eruptions  of  Merapi  and  Merbabu  drove 
the  greater  part  of  the  population  away.  There  are 
no  documents  of  any  kind,  so  far  discovered,  which 
give  the  history  of  the  state. 

The  history  of  East  Java  is  likewise  uncertain  in 
many  respects.  The  first  well-known  prince  was 
Erlangga,  who  reigned  for  over  thirty  years  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  During  the  first 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century  Ken  Arak  was  the  King 
of  Toemapel  or  Singosari.  His  successor  (1247)  was 
King  Anoesapati,  murdered  after  less  than  a  year's 
reign,  who  was  succeeded  by  King  Tohdjaja  (1248). 
He,  too,  after  a  year's  rule,  was  murdered,  his  successor 
being  Rangawoeni,  who  managed  to  hold  the  power 
until  1268,  having  the  distinction  of  being  the  first 
prince  who  died  a  natural  death. 

Rangawoeni's  successor  was  King  Kartanagara, 
the  last  of  his  house,  who  became  unpopular  with  the 
Chinese  emperor  for  maltreating  the  latter's  ambas- 
sador. In  the  year  1292  the  Chinese  government 
sent  an  expedition  to  Java  and  an  army  was  landed. 
Though  this  army  was  compelled  to  retreat,  the 
political  purpose  was  accomplished  by  other  happen- 

[48] 


ings,  and  the  expedition  was  considered  successful, 
for  the  king  to  be  punished  had  been  murdered,  and 
his  state  of  Toemapel  fell,  to  be  succeeded  for  one 
year  by  the  state  of  Daha. 

At  that  time  there  arose  the  native  Hindu  state 
of  Madjapahit,  in  Java,  which  became  very  prominent. 
Its  first  king,  Kertaradjasa,  was  on  the  throne  from 
1294  to  1309.  He  died  a  natural  death,  and  Djajana- 
garo  succeeded  him  (1309-28).  The  latter  was  mur- 
dered. Several  rulers  followed,  who  continued  to 
extend  the  power  of  this  state,  not  only  in  Java,  but 
also  in  Borneo,  Bali,  Banda,  Timor,  Flores,  Sumatra 
(for  instance  Palembang),  and  even  on  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca.  The  last  of  these  kings,  Bra  Widjaja  V, 
died  in  1478,  and  the  power  of  Madjapahit,  which  had 
already  been  weakening  for  some  time,  came  to  an  end. 

After  a  few  years  the  Hindu-Buddhist  influence 
declined  and  the  Mohammedan  crescent  rose  to 
ascendancy. 

In  1377  a  native  state  called  Giri  sent  ambassadors 
to  China.  This  state  afterward  played  quite  an 
important  role.  Its  sultan,  after  his  conversion  to 
the  Islam  religion,  was  known  as  the  Priest-Prince, 
and  was  beheved  to  possess  miraculous  and  mystic 
powers.  He  therefore  exercised  a  great  influence  on 
the  susceptible  and  superstitious  natives.  The  Chi- 
nese merchants  also  visited  Pekalongan  and  Bantam 
(called  Hiakang),  and  used  them  as  shipping-places, 
but  after  the  advent  of  Mohammedanism  their  influ- 
ence waned. 

[49] 


It  is  quite  impossible,  save  for  a  very  general 
purpose,  to  speak  of  the  early  history  of  the  ''Nether- 
lands East  Indies,"  meaning  these  islands  as  a  com- 
pact whole,  as  one  might  speak,  for  instance,  of  the 
early  history  of  Great  Britain,  for  there  never  was 
any  question  of  a  "national"  life  or  unity  of  any 
kind,  either  ethnologically,  poHtically,  or  linguisti- 
cally speaking.  The  religious  customs,  the  laws,  and 
languages  of  each  island  were  not  only  radically  differ- 
ent, as  they  still  are,  but  each  island  in  itself  quite 
frequently  offered  a  bewildering  variety  of  require- 
ments for  national  existence.  Furthermore,  their 
peoples  were,  and  are  yet,  in  different  stages  of 
semi-civilization. 

The  foregoing  pages  give  a  very  dim  outHne  of  the 
early  history  of  the  archipelago  prior  to  the  advent 
of  the  white  man.  Java  having  always  been  the  most 
important  island  of  this  group,  the  description  natu- 
rally concerned  the  history  of  that  island  more  than 
any  other,  but  a  brief  reference  will  be  made  to  the 
history  of  the  other  islands.  Javanese  history  offers 
a  wealth  of  interesting  details,  and  much  is  also  to  be 
learned  from  the  individual  history  of  Giri,  Bantam, 
Cheribon,  and  other  states,  all  of  which  flourished  on 
this  magnificent  island  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
would  carry  us,  however,  too  far  afield  to  pursue  this 
inquiry  any  further.^ 

'  In  these  pages  no  effort  has  been  made  to  go  into  the  details  of 
the  early  history  of  the  archipelago.  Experts  have  made  exhaustive 
investigations  and  new  discoveries  are  constantly  being  announced. 
Those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  subject  scientifically  will  find  a  mass 

[50] 


THE  EARLY  EUROPEAN  NAVIGATORS 

Celebes. — Prior  to  the  advent  of  the  Portuguese 
there  is  very  little  known  of  the  early  history 
of  Celebes,  except  that  this  island  was  much  less 
frequented  by  the  Chinese  and  Hindus  than  Java, 
Sumatra,  or  the  Moluccas.  Both  the  Hindu  and  the 
Mohammedan  influences  were  slow  in  reaching  there, 
and  its  inhabitants  were  very  much  less  affected  by 
these  rehgions  than  those  of  Java  and  Sumatra. 

The  first  authentic  descriptions  are  given  to  us 
by  the  Portuguese  historians,  Oduardo  Barbosa,  Diogo 
de  Canto,  and  a  few  others.  Even  in  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century  Islam  had  not  yet  penetrated 
Celebes,  and  it  was  not  before  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  that  any  of  the  chieftains 
accepted  this  religion.^ 

The  maps  published  by  the  Dutch  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  give  a  rather  indifferent  idea  of  the 
contour  of  Celebes,  which  has  become  so  important 
in  later  years.    As  in  the  other  islands,  several  tribes 

of  carefully  prepared  material.  The  work  of  Dr.  Jan  Veth,  Java, 
Geographisch,  elhnologisch,  historisch  (2d  edition),  is  standard.  Other 
scientists  like  Dr.  N.  J.  K.  Krom,  Dr.  G.  A.  J.  Hazeu,  Mr.  G.  P. 
Rouffaer,  Dr.  J.  S.  Speyer,  Professor  H.  Kern,  Dr.  J.  Brandes,  etc., 
have  made  wonderful  contributions  to  the  world's  knowledge  on  this 
subject.  New  excavations  and  restorations  are  continually  taking 
place,  furnishing  much  new  material  as  the  work  progresses. 
Recently  W.  Fruin  Mees  (1919)  published  a  book,  Geschiedenis  van 
Java  {History  of  Java),  in  which  the  results  of  many  investigations 
have  been  presented  in  popular  form. 

'  The  Sultanate  of  Makassar  seems  to  have  been  the  most  power- 
ful among  the  native  states.  Afterward  its  successor,  the  state  of 
Gowa,  became  known  as  a  belligerent  and  troublesome  factor  in  the 
Moluccas. 

[51] 


or  nations  form  its  population,  of  which  the  Buginese 
and  the  Makassars  are  the  principal  ones.  Some  of 
them  were  savage  tribes;  none  of  them  more  than 
half  civilized/ 

Borneo. — The  early  history  of  Borneo  is  shrouded 
in  as  much  mystery  as  the  early  history  of  Celebes. 
The  principal  inhabitants  are  called  Dayaks,  as 
distinguished  from  the  Malays  who  have  settled  along 
the  coast  and  the  larger  rivers.  It  must  not  be 
thought,  however,  that  these  Dayaks  were  the  aborigi- 
nes of  the  island.  They  are  presumed  to  have  lived 
in  Borneo  before  the  other  Malays,  Chinese,  and 
Hindu- Javanese  took  possession  of  some  of  the  coast 
ranges  and  the  hinterland.  There  are  here  also  a 
great  many  different  tribes,  with  various  customs  and 
languages. 

Before  the  advent  of  the  Portuguese,  there  was  a 
Sultanate  of  Broenei,  on  the  north  coast  of  what  is 
now  British  Borneo,  and  the  whole  island  is  supposed 
to  have  taken  its  name  from  that  sultanate.  There 
was  also  the  state  of  Bandjermasin,  which  was  suf- 
ficiently advanced  in  semi-civilization  to  be  able 
to  export  gold  dust,  pepper,  rattan,  and  forest 
products  at  the  time  of  the  first  advent  of  the  Hollan- 
ders in  Borneo  (1606),  and  this  sultanate  must  have 
existed  long  prior  to  that  date. 

The  same  can  be  said  of  the  sultanates  of  Gunung, 
Tabur,  Kutei,  and  Sambaleung.  Kutei,  situated 
on  Borneo's   east   coast,   is  populated  by  Malays, 

'  See  Van  der  Lith,  Nederlandsch  Oost  Indie,  Vol.  I,  p.  425. 
[52] 


Buginese,  and  Dayaks.  The  Dayaks  are  again 
subdi\'ided  into  a  great  many  tribes,  among  which 
the  Tring  Dayaks  were  the  most  notorious,  having 
had,  until  quite  recently,  a  reputation  for  canni- 
balism. None  of  these  sultanates  seem  to  have 
exercised  any  material  influence  on  the  islands  as  a 
whole. 

Sumatra. — The  ancient  history  of  Sumatra  is  hap- 
pily not  quite  so  shrouded  in  vague  reports  as  that 
of  Borneo  or  Celebes.  The  principal  reason  is  prob- 
ably because  this  island  offered  its  long  western  coast 
as  a  trade  route  for  the  spice  trade.  It  was  natural 
that  both  the  Hindu  and  the  Chinese  traders  should 
have  stopping-places  here.  These  soon  developed  into 
small  colonies  along  the  shores. 

All  reports,  native  as  well  as  foreign,  agree  that 
the  island  first  was  known  as  Walajoe,  or  Java  Minor, 
later  as  Sjamatroe  and  Soemadra.  It  was  never  one 
political  entity. 

From  a  cultural  standpoint  Sumatra  reached  im- 
portance during  two  different  periods.  From  about 
500  to  750  it  became  the  channel  through  which  Bud- 
dhism spread  eastward,  especially  to  Java.  Again, 
from  1250  to  1400,  it  did  the  same  service  for  the 
Islam  religion. 

As  is  true  of  Java,  the  Chinese  records  are  the 
oldest  and  most  reliable  records  in  regard  to  Sumatra. 
The  northern  Hindu  (Chinese)  monk,  I-Tsing,  visited 
this  island  repeatedly  from  671  to  690  and  finally 
completed  a  diary  at  Palembang,  on  the  west  coast  of 

[53] 


Sumatra  in  the  year  690.  He  found  that  Buddhism 
was  prevalent  in  most  of  the  islands  of  the  archi- 
pelago.' 

The  annals  of  the  Liang,  Soei,  and  Tsang  d>Tiasties 
mention  this  island  several  times.  From  these  annals 
it  is  known  that  Palembang,  Djambi,  and  Indragiri 
were  important  Buddhist  states  in  Sumatra,  from  500 
to  750  A.D.,  and  from  1250  to  1300  there  was  a  Hindu 
state  called  Menangkabau,  which  was  under  Javanese 
influence. 

The  Arabs  seem  to  have  appeared  here  as  far  back 
as  the  eighth  century.  In  about  950  a.d.  an  Arab  state 
arose  on  the  northern  end  of  Sumatra.  When  Marco 
Polo  arrived  in  Sumatra  from  South  China  in  1292,  he 
mentioned  a  large  city  (Palembang),  and  referred  to 
the  whole  island  as  Java  Minor.  He  claimed  that 
there  were  eight  kingdoms  or  states  in  Sumatra,  and 
that  one  of  them  named  Perlak  was  much  frequented 
by  the  Saracenic  merchants,  who  had  converted  the 
natives  to  the  Law  of  Mohammed. 

In  1413  the  Chinese  envoy  Cheng  Ho  visited 
Sumatra  or  Java  Minor.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Ma  Hoean,  who  was  an  Arabic  scholar  and  a  Moham- 
medan. His  memoirs  disclose  the  fact  that  the 
Mohammedan  religion  had  made  great  progress  in  the 
north.  In  fact,  all  of  northern  Sumatra  had  been  con- 
verted to  Islam,  while  Palembang  remained  Buddhist. 

'  See  I-Tsing,  A  Record  of  the  Buddhist  Religion  as  Practiced  in 
India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  (a.d.  671-95),  translated  by  J.  Taka 
Kusu,  Oxford,  1896. 

[54] 


Banos,  who  visited  the  island  in  1525,  published 
a  list  of  the  states  existing  in  Sumatra.  There  were 
twenty-nine  countries,  at  the  head  of  which  stood 
sultans  or  rajahs.  Since  the  year  1500  the  state  of 
Atjeh  had  become  important.  This  state,  located  on 
the  extreme  northern  point  of  Sumatra,  was  erected 
on  the  ruins  of  Lamoeri.  The  Portuguese  had  built 
a  fort  at  Pasei-Samunden  in  1521,  but  this  was 
stormed  and  taken  by  the  forces  of  the  Sultan  of  Atjeh 
in  1524.  The  Portuguese  were  thereby  definitely 
ejected  from  Sumatra.  The  Sultan  of  Atjeh  became 
the  leader  of  the  Mohammedans  in  the  island,  while 
the  Javanese  Mohammedans  came  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Priest-Prince  of  Giri  mentioned  before. 

This  prince  seems  to  have  been  the  suzerain  of  the 
rulers  of  Demak,  Cheribon,  Tegal,  Kudus,  Tuban, 
Dradjat,  and  Ampel  (Surabaya),  who  were  all  Moham- 
medans. 

The  Moluccas. — By  this  name  the  islands  situ- 
ated between  Celebes  and  New  Guinea  are  gener- 
ally indicated.  For  a  long  time  they  were  the  sole 
purveyors  of  cloves,  nutmeg,  and  mace  for  the  West- 
ern markets.  Among  the  larger  islands  may  be 
mentioned  Halmahera,  Obi,  Sula,  Ceram,  Buru,  and 
Ambon;  among  the  smaller  ones,  Ternate,  Tidore, 
and  the  Banda  Islands.  Concerning  the  early  history 
of  these  islands  little  is  known,  except  in  a  general  way. 

The  original  inhabitants  were  the  Alfoers,  who  are 
still  found  on  some  of  these  islands.  They  have  not 
mixed  with  other  tribes.     Some  of  the  islands,  on  the 

[55] 


other  hand,  have  an  exceedingly  mixed,  even  mongrel 
population. 

Inasmuch  as  none  of  the  tribes  had  an  alphabet, 
and  writing  was  unknown,  and  since  the  Arabic  and 
Chinese  writers  indulged  only  in  deductions  and 
surmises,  it  is  little  wonder  that  we  have  no  accurate 
information  to  speak  of  in  regard  to  this  history, 
before  the  advent  of  the  white  man. 

Antonio  d'Albreo  was  sent  by  d'Albuquerque  to 
the  Moluccas  after  the  latter  had  subjugated  Malacca 
in  1 51 1.  He  found  the  Sultan  of  Ternate  in  the  usual 
state  of  war  with  the  Sultan  of  Tidore,  and  promptly 
took  sides.  Even  at  that  time  the  Portuguese  applied 
the  principle  in  government  so  successfully  followed 
by  other  colonizing  powers,  to-wit:  "Divide  that  you 
may  rule."  In  1522  the  islands  were  visited  by 
Antonio  deBrito,  accompaniedby  a  powerful  squadron, 
and  he  became  the  first  Portuguese  governor  of  the 
Moluccas.  Sir  Francis  Drake  traveled  there  in  1579. 
He  found  several  Portuguese  trading-posts  and  for- 
tresses, e.g..  Fort  San  Joao,  on  the  Island  of  Ternate. 

In  1598  the  first  Dutch  vessels  arrived  in  the 
Moluccas  and  stopped  at  the  island  of  Ternate,  the 
Banda  Islands,  etc.  From  that  date  the  supremacy 
of  the  Portuguese  was  disputed  by  the  Dutch,  who 
soon  superseded  the  former  as  rulers  of  this  archi- 
pelago. The  word  "rulers"  must  not  be  accepted  in 
the  strictest  sense,  for  the  different  sultans  remained  in 
power,  and  for  many  years  went  on  waging  wars  with 
one  another  whenever  the  gentle  spirits  of  their  fore- 

[56] 


fathers  moved  them  to  indulge  in  that  agreeable 
pastime. 

Already,  in  those  benighted  times,  wealth  was  the 
sinew  of  war,  and  unfortunately  for  their  subjects, 
these  small  tyrants  were  plentifully  supplied  with  this 
sinew.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans  the 
different  sultans  had  amassed  great  fortunes  through 
the  spice  trade,  and  even  after  the  white  man's  advent 
this  source  of  income  continued  to  yield  liberally. 
Sir  Francis  Drake's  description  of  the  splendor  he 
found  at  the  court  of  the  Sultan  of  Ternate  reads  like 
a  story  of  the  Arabian  Nights. "^  Ternate  and  Tidore 
were  words  for  poets  to  conjure  with. 

The  Western  World  owes  an  everlasting  debt  of 
gratitude  to  the  early  Portuguese  na\dgators  and 
merchants.  One  who  travels  today  in  the  Far  East, 
visiting  Singapore,  Java,  or  the  Moluccas,  continually 
finds  descendants  of  these  people,  and  also  the  mon- 
uments which  they  erected— churches,  orphanages, 
etc.  When  looking  at  these  landmarks  it  is  easy  to 
believe  the  statements  of  many  early  observers,  that 
the  Portuguese  were  particularly  fitted  to  be  the 
first  rulers  of  these  regions.  Their  general  swarthy 
appearance  was  less  different  from  that  of  the  Oriental 
than  the  appearance  of  the  blond  men  of  Northern 
Europe;  their  manners  were  gentler,  less  brusque, 
and  therefore  less  offensive  to  the  sensitive  pride  of 
the  native  chiefs;   and  their  sobriety  endeared  them 

'  See  J.  M.  Brown,  The  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  Walcott,  Java  and 
Her  Neighbors  (19 14),  pp.  143-44. 

[57] 


to  many.  The  Catholic  rehgion  which  they  brought 
with  them,  with  its  beautiful  churches  decorated  in 
mosaic,  etc.,  must  have  appealed  far  more  to  the 
natives  than  the  colder  and  more  austere  doctrines 
and  manifestations  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church. 
Even  a  Protestant  Hollander,  if  he  visits  the  islands, 
cannot  suppress  a  certain  feeling  of  pity  and  regret 
that  the  Portuguese  nation  was  deprived  of  almost  all 
the  fruits  of  her  early  enterprise,  energies,  and  sacri- 
fices made  during  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seven- 
teenth centuries. 

The  Small  Sunda  Islands. — The  early  history  of 
the  smaller  Sunda  Islands  such  as  Bali,  Lombok, 
Sumbawa,  Sumba,  Flores,  Wetar,  and  Timor,  in  so  far 
as  it  is  known,  offers  the  same  complexity  of  races 
and  religious  behefs  as  the  larger  islands. 

In  Bali,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
descendants  from  "people  of  Madjapahit, "  that  is 
Javanese-Hindu  from  Central  Java;  others  are  indi- 
genous, and  are  called  Bilangas.  The  former  are 
Brahmanistic,  the  latter  Mohammedans.  There  are 
also  many  descendants  of  numerous  other  tribes  in  the 
coast  regions.  The  people  of  Bali  mixed  a  great  deal 
with  those  of  Java,  and  as  a  result  their  histories  are 
interwoven.  Here  the  old  Hindu  religion  is  found  in 
its  purest  form;  here  caste  is  strictly  observed. 

In  Lombok  we  find  BaHnese  and  Sasaks,  the  former 
worshiping  Hindu-fashion,  the  latter  being  Moham- 
medans. They  do  not  mingle,  but  are  separated  as 
if  by  an  impenetrable  divide. 

[58I 


CHAPTER  VI.  THE  HISTORICAL  TITLE 
OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  EAST 
INDIAN  COLONIES.  Continued 

INSULINDE  DURING  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 


Political  history  merged  with  spice  trade — Demand  for  Eastern 
luxuries — Cities  of  Southern  Netherlands,  distributing  points — 
Trade  routes — Importing  in  hands  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese — 
Northern  cities  of  Holland  competing — Struggle  of  Spain  and 
Portugal — King  Philip  II — RebeUion — Republic  of  Seven 
Netherlands  Provinces  formed — Union  of  Spain  and  Portugal- 
Spanish  ports  not  closed  to  Hollanders  until  1587 — Methods 
of  warfare — Before  advent  of  chauvinism — Present  changed 
affairs — Outcry  at  closing  of  harbors — ^Attitude  of  Dutch 
seamen — Patriotism — Taxes  for  wars — National  budget  sys- 
tem— Dutch  merchants  seek  best  route  to  Indies — Reverend 
Plancius — Jan  Huizen  Linschoten — Three  attempts  of  Hol- 
landers to  find  northern  route — Van  Neck's  expedition — 
"Far  Away  Companies"  organized — Charter  granted  to 
East  Indian  Company,  1602 


THE  HISTORICAL  TITLE  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  EAST 
INDIAN  COLONIES,  Continued 

INSULINDE   DURING   THE    SIXTEENTH   CENTURY 


ROM  the  year  1500  the  history  of  the  archi- 
pelago is  more  accurately  recorded,  and 
from  that  time  the  political  history  becomes 
closely  merged  with  the  history  of  the  spice 
trade.  The  commercial  situation  as  to  the 
coveted  Indian  spices  during  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  was  rather  complicated  in  so  far  as 
the  Netherlands  and  Northern  Europe  were  con- 
cerned. Those  returning  from  the  Crusades  had  long 
ago  introduced  the  use  of  Eastern  luxuries,  such  as 
perfumes,  soaps,  silks,  spices,  and  what  not,  into  the 
rugged  and  simple  lives  of  the  Northern  peoples. 
Southern  Europe  had  been  acquainted  with  them  for 
many  centuries. 

Especially  the  prosperous  cities  of  the  southern 
provinces  of  the  Low  Lands  or  Netherlands  (the 
present  kingdom  of  Belgium)  were  the  great  marts 
and  distributing  points  for  these  spices  and  other 
Oriental  luxuries.  These  Far  Eastern  products  were 
brought  by  caravans  and  ships  to  Alexandria  and 
Constantinople,  and  from  these  places  they  were 
carried  by  the  merchants  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  or 
Spain  and  Portugal,  to  the  general  market-places  in 
the  Netherlands,  such  as  Antwerp,  Ghent,  or  Bruges. 

[61] 


The  merchants  of  these  cities  did  not  often  engage 
in  navigation  enterprises  themselves.  They  were 
satisfied  to  play  the  part  of  middlemen,  and  left  the 
importing  of  spices  to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
shipowners,  while  the  exporting  was  largely  in  the 
hands  of  the  navigators  from  the  Hanse  cities,  who 
distributed  the  purchased  wares  all  over  Northern 
Europe. 

The  merchants  from  the  northern  cities  in  the 
Netherlands,  such  as  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  Dor- 
drecht, Enkhuizen,  Middleburg,  Vere,  etc.,  most  of 
which  are  situated  in  the  provinces  of  Holland  and 
Zeeland,  were  more  enterprising.  They  made  a  bid 
for,  and  soon  obtained  a  part  of,  this  very  profit- 
able ocean-carrying  trade.  Soon  they  had  a  very 
large  number  of  small  but  effective  trading-vessels 
and  went  directly  to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
harbors  to  buy  at  first-hand.  Especially  when  the 
Hanse  cities  declined,  this  ocean-carrying  trade  fell 
to  the  Northern  Netherlands,  and  it  became  a  very 
flourishing  enterprise. 

The  Spice  Islands  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
merchants  of  Spain,  especially  after  Magellan  had 
arrived  at  the  Philippines  on  his  trip  around  the  world, 
made  on  behalf  of  the  Spanish  ruler.  A  bitter  quarrel 
was  engendered  between  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
as  to  the  Moluccas  (then  known  as  the  Spice  Islands), 
which  was  finally  settled  in  1529  by  treaty  and  papal 
decree.  In  those  times  the  Hollanders,  who  were  fast 
becoming  the  most  important  ocean  carriers  in  the 

[62] 


Western  World,  traded  little  with  these  islands,  for 
they  were  able  to  obtain  all  the  spices  they  needed  in 
Lisbon,  and  from  that  port  they  carried  them  over  a 
large  part  of  Northern  Europe.  But  these  conditions 
were  not  to  continue. 

Since  1555,  when  Charles  V  voluntarily  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his  son.  King  Philip  II,  all  of  the  seventeen 
Netherlands  provinces  had  been  under  the  dominion 
of  that  bigoted  and  narrow-minded  ruler.  But  since 
1567,  the  seven  northern  provinces  had  been  in  open- 
armed  rebellion,  abetted  and  assisted  by  William, 
Prince  of  Orange  and  Count  of  Nassau,  known  as 
William  the  Silent,  who  played  the  same  role  in  the 
history  of  the  Netherlands  that  George  Washington 
afterward  did  in  American  history.  These  rebellious 
provinces  finally  declared  their  independence,  and  the 
New  Republic  of  the  Seven  Netherlands  Provinces 
was  born  in  1587  by  the  Act  of  Abjuration. 

When  in  1580  the  union  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
was  made  complete,  the  Portuguese  colonies  passed 
under  the  scepter  of  the  Spanish  king.  The  latter 
allowed  the  spice  trade  to  continue  for  quite  a  while, 
but  finally,  in  1587,  he  closed  the  Lisbon  and  Spanish 
markets  to  his  rebellious  former  subjects,  now  his 
declared  enemies. 

It  may  seem  strange  to  us  that  long  after  the 
Netherlands  and  Spain  were  at  war,  this  trade  had 
continued,  and  the  ships  flying  the  Netherlands  flag 
were  admitted  to  the  harbors  of  the  enemy  without 
being  molested.     But  one  should  remember  that  in 

[63] 


those  times  rulers  made  war  mostly  with  hirelings. 
The  sons  and  daughters  of  each  nation  had  not  yet 
been  taught,  as  modern  children  are  from  their  early 
childhood,  that  they  spring  from  a  race  superior  to  any 
other  in  the  world.  The  system  of  engaging  mer- 
cenaries to  cut  the  throats  of  other  mercenaries,  in  lieu 
of  sending  the  flower  of  a  nation's  manhood  to  the 
slaughter,  was  still  in  vogue.  It  was  only  when  a 
small  nation  like  Holland  was  attacked  by  an  enemy 
who  could  muster  an  overwhelming  army  of  merce- 
naries, that  the  citizens  themselves  arose,  sword  in 
hand,  to  defend  their  ancient  liberties.  They  fought, 
not  because  they  were  filled  with  intense  hatred  of 
each  and  every  subject  of  the  invading  ruler,  but 
only  because  they  hated  the  ruler  himself,  and  his 
minions  who  brought  such  suffering. 

The  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  and  Netherlanders  of 
those  times  still  thought  that  patriotism  was  a  virtue 
and  must  come  from  the  heart,  and  therefore  must  be 
kindly;  internationalism  was  a  matter  of  mind  and 
therefore  must  be  sensible.  Furthermore,  inasmuch 
as  their  viewpoints  proved  rather  beneficial  financially, 
they  did  not  see  their  way  clear  to  make  an  immediate 
change.  They  clung  to  the  doctrine  of  the  open  sea, 
which  is  now  strictly  observed  by  several  of  the  world- 
powers,  notably  by  Switzerland,  Bolivia,  and  Lux- 
emburg. The  "enemy"  merchant  ships  of  either 
v/  country  were  therefore  hospitably  received  in  their 

harbors.  Inasmuch  as  the  main  energy  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  shipowners  v/as  directed  to  the  exten- 

[64] 


sion  of  their  commerce  with  America  and  Asia,  they 
rather  welcomed  the  advent  of  the  northern  traders 
in  their  harbors,  for  here  was  the  necessary  link  in  the 
great  chain  of  ocean  carriage  from  Oriental  producers 
to  Occidental  consumers.  At  the  same  time  they 
allowed  the  paid  assassins  of  their  king  to  do  all 
the  killing  they  could,  and  went  about  their  busi- 
ness. 

It  is  rather  amusing  that  when  the  authorities  of 
Spain  put  a  stop  to  this  trade  by  suddenly  placing  an 
embargo  on  all  Dutch  ships  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
harbors  (1585),  there  was  a  great  outcry,  not  only  in 
the  Netherlands,  but  also  in  the  other  two  countries, 
that  "the  Spanish  government  had  not  played  fair." 
The  arrangement  which  had  existed  prior  to  the 
seizure  of  the  Dutch  ships  in  the  Spanish  harbors  did 
not  seem  to  bother  the  consciences  of  the  old  burghers 
of  Amsterdam  very  much.  They  had  nothing  in 
particular  against  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  mer- 
chants as  such.  While  they  fought  His  Most  Catholic 
Majesty  the  King  of  Spain,  they  themselves  were, 
from  a  commercial  standpoint,  so  catholic  that  they 
declared  their  wilhngness  "to  sail  to  hell  and  burn  the 
sails  of  their  ships,  so  long  as  there  was  some  good 
honest  bartering  in  sight."  Those  who  are  so  much 
inclined  to  criticize,  in  the  light  and  pride  of  this  era, 
the  sayings  and  feelings  of  people  of  former  times,  may 
well  hesitate  and  wonder  sometimes  whether  or  not 
modern  chauvinism,  which  masquerades  so  often 
under  the  name  of  patriotism,  is  a  virtue  or  a  vice. 

[65] 


True  patriotism  should  assist  a  man  in  acquiring  the 

"worid-sense." 

All  modern  nations  are  more  or  less  suffering  from 
the  lack  of  this  "world-sense."  The  budgets  of  most 
of  them  tell  an  appalling  story.  As  much  as  90 
per  cent  of  the  total  revenue  goes  to  the  payment 
of  interest  and  the  amortization  of  national  debts 
directly  traceable  to  past  wars,  or  to  the  maintenance 
of  great  military  and  naval  establishments — that  is, 
preparedness  for  new  wars.  The  balance  of  10  per 
cent  must  suffice  for  all  government  purposes,  such  as 
sanitation,  education,  public  improvements,  public 
services,  and  what  not.  The  people  are  groaning 
under  taxation,  while  the  affected  governments  are 
assuring  the  struggling  tax-payers  that  their  own 
particular  wars  are  always  "defensive"  ones. 

Before  the  French  Revolution  the  treasure  chest 
of  the  king  was  generally  identical  with  the  pubKc 
treasury.  It  was  thought  that  this  abuse  would  be 
cured  when  the  other  wrong  of  having  mercenary 
soldiers  was  abolished.  In  place  of  the  king's  debts, 
which  were  partly  just  and  partly  the  result  of  riotous 
living  and  lavish  gifts  to  male  and  female  favorites, 
we  have  now  huge  national  debts,  also  partly  created 
by  proper  expenditures,  and  partly  squandered  on 
the  enormous  military  and  naval  estabhshments  of 
modern  times. 

Instead  of  mercenary  troops,  Hessians,  and  the 
like,  we  have  in  most  countries  tremendous  national 
armies,  composed  of  willing  and  unwilling  conscripts. 

[66] 


Under  the  new  system,  armies  of  nationals  are  placed 
in  the  fields  in  numbers  formerly  unheard  of.  Even 
Napoleon's  "  hea\-y  battalions  "  numbered  seldom  over 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  a  mere  handful  in 
modern  battle.  Moreover,  blood  as  a  national  sub- 
stance is  wasted  on  a  scale  that  makes  the  efforts  of 
former  kings  and  tyrants  look  like  child's  play. 
Nowadays  national  hatreds  are  bred  such  as  the  world 
has  never  dreamed  of  before. 

Those  who  have  seen  the  camp  and  revival  meet- 
ings held  so  commonly  in  the  western  parts  of  the 
United  States  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  will  realize 
how  easy  it  is  to  whip  into  a  frenzy  an  otherwise 
perfectly  rational  population.  People  used  to  flock  to 
these  camp  meetings  from  miles  and  miles.  They 
came  on  foot,  on  horseback,  in  light  rigs,  and  in  heavy 
farm  wagons.  They  came  singly  or  with  whole 
famihes,  and  generally  pitched  camp  alongside  a  living 
stream.  If  the  preacher  was  successful  as  a  revivalist 
or  exhorter,  he  soon  had  his  listeners  in  a  frenzy  of 
religious  hysteria.  Those  who,  besides  being  preach- 
ers, had  a  good  knowledge  of  mob  psychology  accom- 
plished wonders.  Posts  had  to  be  placed  in  the  ground 
so  that  the  converts  or  returned  backsliders  could 
grip  them  in  their  wild  jumping,  after  the  "spirit" 
had  entered  them.  Some  were  granted  the  "gift  of 
tongues";  others  barked  like  dogs,  and  all  of  them 
were  supposed  to  be  Christians!  The  military  mas- 
ters of  Germany,  no  matter  what  their  other  defects 
may  have  been,  were  for  years  experts  in  this  mob 

I67] 


psychology,  debauching  the  minds  of  an  otherwise 
sane  people.  Moreover,  the  militarists  in  other 
countries  are  rapidly  following  suit. 

But  to  return  to  the  question  of  the  Dutch  navi- 
gators. As  we  have  seen,  the  sturdy  burghers  of  the 
Low  Lands  were  not  obsessed  with  the  new  national- 
ism. In  the  meantime  the  Spanish  king  had  also 
closed  the  ports  of  Santa  Maria  and  San  Lucas  against 
the  Netherlands  trading- vessels  which  called  there  for 
salt,  with  the  result  that  these  traders  were  driven  to 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  still  nearer  the  Indies. 

The  route  to  the  Indies  was  not  entirely  unfa- 
miliar to  the  Dutch  navigators.  For  some  time  prior 
to  the  union  between  Spain  and  Portugal  the  mer- 
chants of  the  latter  country  had  employed  Dutch 
sailors  and  navigation  officers  in  preference  to  Span- 
iards, whom  they  feared  as  possible  competitors  in 
their  profitable  Indian  trade.  Spanish  merchants 
trading  to  the  Antilles  employed  Dutch  sailors  in 
preference  to  Portuguese,  for  the  same  reason. 

The  Reverend  Plancius,  an  enterprising  divine 
dwelling  in  Amsterdam,  had  slowly  accumulated  quite 
a  collection  of  data  and  navigation  charts,  indicating 
the  routes  to  the  Indies.  Moreover,  Jan  Huizen 
Linschoten,  afterward  famous  as  a  cartographer,  hav- 
ing left  his  fatherland,  Holland,  when  he  was  only 
seventeen  years  old,  and  having  for  several  years  led 
a  roving  life  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  Indies, 
published  a  description  of  his  travels  containing  very 
important  information  which   the  Hollanders  were 

[68] 


VIEW  OF  THE  CRATER  BROMO  TO  THE  LEFT,  NEXT  TO  IT  THE 
BATOK  AND  WIDODAREN.  AND  SEMERU  IN  DISTANCE 


eager  to  get.^  Yet  the  Holland  merchants  were  never 
known  to  be  hasty  in  their  judgments.  ''Consider 
before  you  decide"^  has  always  been  and  still  is  their 
motto,  and  they  therefore  sent  their  agent  Houtman 
to  Lisbon  in  1592,  ostensibly  to  trade,  but  in  reality 
to  gather  additional  navigation  data  and  general 
information. 

The  route  followed  by  the  Portuguese  had  its  very 
serious  drawbacks.  In  the  first  place  one  would  have 
to  breast  the  storms  in  the  Atlantic,  especially  severe 
near  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  then  again  there  were  the 
storms  which  one  almost  invariably  encountered  in 
rounding  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  addition  there 
was  to  be  faced  the  danger  of  being  captured  by  the 
Spanish  fleet,  or  worse  still  by  the  pirates  who  infested 
the  seas  between  Spain  and  the  Azores  Islands,  and 
who  spared  neither  friend  nor  foe.  The  Dutch  mer- 
chants therefore  decided  to  try  the  northern  route,  and 
in  1594  four  vessels  started  on  this  northern  trip. 
On  one  of  these  vessels  Linschoten  was  supercargo. 
The  vessels  returned  after  several  months'  absence, 
claiming  that  they  had  located  an  open  passage 
through  the  northern  waters.  In  1595  a  second  trial 
was  made  to  find  this  passage,  but  without  success. 

A  third  effort  was  made  in  1596,  two  vessels  being 
sent  out.  One  was  under  the  command  of  Captain 
de  Ryp,  and  the  other  had  as  supercargo  Heemskerck, 

'  See  Linschoten's  Re.ys-Geschrift  van  de  Navigation  der  Portuga- 
loysers  in  Orienten. 

^  "Zindt  voor  gij  begint,"  or  "Wikt  voor  gij  beschikt." 

[69] 


with  Willem  Barends  as  chief  navigating  officer.  This 
endeavor  ended  in  a  tragedy  for  the  ship  of  Heemskerck, 
and  Barends  was  imprisoned  in  the  ice  near  Nova 
Zembla,  where  the  ship  wintered.  After  unbelievable 
hardships  this  vessel  finally  managed  to  return  in  the 
spring,  but  Willem  Barends  died  on  the  way  home. 

In  the  meantime  the  impatience  of  the  Nether- 
landers  had  increased,  for  they  thought  that  valuable 
time  had  been  lost,  and  that  competitors  might  obtain 
priority  rights.  Preparations  for  a  new  voyage  were 
rushed,  with  the  result  that  on  the  second  day  of 
April,  1595,  four  vessels  sailed  from  Holland  bound 
for  the  Indies.  While  these  ships  were  supposed  to 
constitute  one  compact  squadron,  still  each  captain 
was  supreme  on  board  his  own  vessel.  His  letter  of 
command  contained  the  expression,  ''Commander  of 
the  vessel,  next  to  God." 

The  chief  pilot  on  board  these  ships  was  one  Pieter 
Dirckzoon  Keyser,  who  was  the  pupil  of  the  learned 
preacher  Plancius,  already  mentioned,  while  the  super- 
cargo, directly  representing  the  merchants  interested, 
was  the  famous  Cornells  de  Houtman.  Inasmuch  as 
resistance  was  expected,  and  as  a  precaution  against 
pirates  and  other  enemies  on  the  high  seas,  these 
vessels  carried  250  armed  men.  To  make  navigation 
as  safe  as  possible,  the  astronomer,  Pieter  Dirckzoon 
Keyser,  had  been  engaged  as  chief  navigation  expert, 
and  the  ships  safely  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  dropped  anchor  in  the  roadstead  of  Bantam,  just 
446  days  after  their  departure  from  the  home  port. 

[70] 


It  cannot  be  claimed  that  the  Hollanders  displayed 
much  tact  after  their  arrival.  In  fact  they  committed 
several  serious  mistakes.  They  found  that  the 
Portuguese  were  not  in  a  position  to  oppose  them, 
being  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the  King  of  Bantam 
(on  the  most  western  end  of  Java).  Instead  of  re- 
maining neutral  they  gave  the  Portuguese  aid  and  com- 
fort, which  did  not  add  to  their  popularity  with  the 
natives.  The  trip  was  far  from  satisfactory  in  material 
results,  and  the  nine  merchants  of  Amsterdam  who  had 
organized  the  "Far  Away  Company"^  and  financed 
the  enterprise  had  good  cause  for  disappointment. 

From  that  time  on,  however,  expeditions  from 
Holland  to  the  Indies  followed  one  another  in  rapid 
succession.  The  first  was  under  Van  Neck,  who 
arrived  with  three  ships  in  the  offing  before  Bantam 
in  the  latter  part  of  1598.  He  had  succeeded  in 
making  the  trip  in  less  than  one-half  the  time  made  by 
Houtman.  Van  Neck  made  a  successful  return  trip 
to  the  mother  country,  and  arrived  there  with  600,000 
pounds  of  pepper,  250,000  pounds  of  cloves,  2,000 
pounds  of  nutmeg,  and  200  pounds  of  mace — the 
richest  cargo  ever  brought  to  the  Netherlands.  The 
result  can  be  imagined !  New  "Far  Away"  companies 
were  organized  almost  over  night.  They  were  soon 
very  numerous,  and  a  keen  competition  set  in  between 
them. 

'  Maatschappy  van  Verre;  see  F.  van  Rysens,  Netherlands 
History,  p.  202;  also  History  of  Java,  by  Donald  MacLain  Campbell, 
H.B.M.  Consul  in  Java,  published  in  1915, 

[71I 


Oldebarneveldt,  the  famous  Dutch  statesman, 
soon  realized  that  this  competition  would  quickly 
degenerate  into  open  strife  and  bitter  quarrels,  bring- 
ing loss  and  destruction  instead  of  wealth  and  unity 
to  the  country.  He  therefore  bent  his  energies  and 
his  powerful  influence  to  the  task  of  uniting  these 
warring  interests  and  welding  them  into  one  great 
commercial  body.  He  found  a  stimulus  in  the  fact 
that  already,  in  the  year  1600,  the  British  East  Indian 
Company  had  been  founded,  and  his  keen  foresight 
made  him  realize  that  unless  a  powerful  body  was 
organized,  the  fight  against  the  Portuguese,  as  well 
as  against  English  adventurers  and  savage  natives, 
would  be  a  losing  one. 

Oldebarneveldt  obtained  the  co-operation  of  his 
government  by  truthfully  pointing  out  that  the  fast- 
growing  East  Indian  trade  demanded  maritime  pro- 
tection against  enemies  and  pirates,  and  that  the 
combination  of  all  the  Indian  merchants  and  "Far 
Away"  companies  would  create  a  body  powerful 
enough  to  have  its  own  armed  vessels,  and  thereby 
relieve  the  government  of  this  expensive  task. 

In  1602  the  States  General  (the  Congress  of  the 
different  provinces)  issued  a  special  charter  to  the 
East  Indian  Company,  which  was  in  fact  its  birth 
certificate.  With  the  granting  of  this  charter,  the 
foundation  was  laid  for  that  Netherlands  empire  in 
the  Far  East  which  has  challenged  many  times  the 
admiration  of  the  world. 


[72] 


CHAPTER  VII.  THE  HISTORICAL  TITLE 
OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  EAST 
INDIAN  COLONIES,  Concluded 

THE  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIAN  COMPANY— INSU- 
LINDE  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  AND  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURIES 


Strenuous  times — Slavery — Lack  of  moral  responsibility — 
Actions  of  Company  to  be  viewed  in  light  of  those  times — 
Power  of  Company — Its  charter — Monopoly — Financial  policy 
— Sovereign  rights — No  national  unity  in  Insulinde — DiflFerent 
stages  of  development — Warfare  of  sultans — Nobility  and 
land  tenure — Real  estate  laws — Customary  law — Hindu  law — 
The  Adat — Moslem  law — Overlordship  of  sultans — ^Javanese 
serfs — The  nobility — Treaties  of  white  men  with  rulers — 
Concessions — Chinese  and  Arabs — Loyalty  of  natives  to 
rulers — Relations  of  Company,  commercial — Powers  extended — ■ 
Profits  of  Company — Forced  labor — Native  rights  given  scant 
attention — Causes — Political  rights  of  Company  utilized — 
Governor  General  Coen — English  competition — Djakatra 
taken — Coen's  motto — -War  with  Mataram — Pieter  Eberfeld, 
the  traitor — Preanger  gained — Mataram  split  into  two  sultan- 
ates— Suzerainty  over  west  coast  of  Borneo — Overlordship  of 
Netherlands — Decline  of  Company's  power — ^Corruption — 
Free  trade — Company  abolished — Colonies  lost  to  England — 
Restored  by  treaty — Holland  under  Napoleon — Colonies 
again  lost — Governor  Raffles — Indies  restored  to  Bata- 
vian  Republic — Condition  of  archipelago — Java — ^Buitenzorg — 
Marshall  Daendel's  policy — Road  across  Java — The  outlying 
possessions — Coffee  culture 


THE  HISTORICAL  TITLE  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  TO  THE  EAST 
INDIAN  COLONIES,  Concluded 

THE  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIAN  COMPANY 


HE  history  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indian 
Company  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  of 
most  overseas  trading  and  conquering  com- 
panies of  those  ages.  It  was  a  heroic  history 
from  a  material  standpoint,  the  history 
of  deeds  of  strong  men  with  strong  minds,  men 
endowed  with  consciences  which,  when  it  came  to 
the  rights  of  the  ''heathen"  or  "savages,"  were  not 
known  for  any  too  great  delicacy. 

These  were  the  times  when  Protestants  in  the 
Netherlands  were  led  to  the  auto  da  fe'  (burning 
pyre)  by  the  Inquisition,  and  died  in  the  flames  with 
songs  on  their  lips;  when  the  Protestants  most 
cheerfully  retaliated  whenever  the  opportunity  arose; 
when  Spanish  and  Italian  nobles  of  old  Catholic 
lineage,  who  were  in  command  of  the  forces  of  the 
King  of  Spain  in  the  Netherlands,  unblushingly 
broke  their  word  of  honor  given  to  a  retreating  foe, 
and  butchered  men,  women,  and  children  without 
hesitation.  For  were  these  people  not  rebels  against 
His  Majesty  the  King,  and  worse  yet,  heretics  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Mother  Church  ? 

These  were  the  times  when  a  statesman  like 
Oldebarneveldt,  a  man  of  seventy-two  years,  bent 

[75] 


with  the  cares  of  the  republic,  was  led  to  the  scaffold 
by  his  political  enemies,  and  his  old  gray  head  put 
under  the  executioner's  ax.  His  trial  had  been  a 
violation  of  the  laws  of  Holland,  which  required  that 
accusation  should  follow  within  six  weeks  of  arrest, 
or  the  prisoner  must  be  freed.  His  last  words  were, 
"Citizens,  I  have  been  your  compatriot  throughout 
my  Hfe.  Believe  not  that  I  die  for  treason,  but  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  liberty  and  the  laws  of  the 
country."^ 

These  were  also  the  times  when  the  illustrious 
international  lawyer  Grotius,  the  author  of  De 
Jure  Praedae,  of  TJw  History  of  Old  Holland,  of  De 
Jure  Belli  et  Pads,  and  many  other  works  which 
forever  have  established  his  fame  in  the  world  of 
intellect,  was  imprisoned  and  barely  escaped  with 
his  life.^  These  were  the  times  when  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  was  beheaded  in  England,  after  years  of 
loyalty  and  service  to  his  queen;  when  Catholic 
kings  of  France  murdered  Protestant  noblemen  of 
great  virtue  and  patriotism  without  the  least  hesita- 
tion; and  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  were  often 
guilty  of  barbarous  cruelty  toward  the  Jews. 

From  the  enlightened  \'iewpoint  these  early 
conquerors  of  the  Indies  had,  to  say  the  least,  some 
very  robust  notions  about  their  rights.  Slavery 
was  with  them  a  recognized  institution,  as  it  was  in 

'  See  Burginys,  Vie  de  Grotius,  Vol.  I,  p.  102. 

'  Read  Hamilton  Vreeland's  Hugo  Grotius,  Oxford  University 
Press,  191 7. 

[76] 


the  American  Colonies,  and  these  Hollanders  had 
exactly  the  same  ideas  on  the  subject  as  then  pre- 
vailed in  the  greater  part  of  the  world.  God-fearing 
American  plantation  owners  did  not  inquire  too 
closely,  if  at  all,  into  the  methods  which  the  masters 
of  slave-vessels  used  on  the  African  coast  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  "  cargo. "  They  simply  bought 
so  much  human  material  at  the  best  prevailing  prices, 
paying  little  attention  to  the  horrors  of  the  trade. 

The  citizens  of  New  England,  like  good  Christians, 
abhorred  so  baneful  an  institution  as  slavery.  Far 
be  it  from  them  to  allow  the  introduction  of  such  a 
contemptible  system  in  their  midst.  They  shipped 
rum  to  Africa's  darkest  coast,  and  this  rum  was 
traded  for  black  slaves.  But  the  hard  climate  of 
the  north  was  totally  unfit  for  the  delicate  constitu- 
tions of  the  black,  so  these  sunny,  carefree  children 
from  the  equator  were  taken  to  the  mild  and  fever- 
infested  climate  of  the  West  Indies.  Here  the  ships 
unloaded  their  cargo  of  humans,  and  took  a  load  of 
molasses,  which  in  turn  was  again  translated  into 
rum,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum,  but  no  slave  had  ever 
been  brought  to  the  sacred  shores  of  the  new  freedom ! 

The  psalm-singing  burghers  of  Amsterdam  had 
about  the  same  notions  in  regard  to  their  moral 
responsibilities  toward  the  slave  trade.  They  blamed 
the  institution  on  the  native  rulers,  and  this  of 
course  made  a  very  satisfactory  difference,  especially 
from  a  high  ethical  standpoint.  The  facts  are  that 
while  slaves  were  kept  by  the  native  princes  and 

[77] 


sultans  outside  of  Java,  in  that  principal  island 
slavery  was  practically  unknown  until  introduced 
by  Europeans. 

In  the  Indies  the  sultans  exercised  an  autocratic 
power  over  their  subjects.  In  the  various  islands 
different  customs  prevailed,  but,  generally  speaking, 
the  rule  of  the  prince  was  absolute.  The  servants 
of  the  Company  were  not  very  slow  in  taking  advan- 
tage of  these  conditions,  and  slavery  and  slave- 
trading  in  one  form  or  another  were  countenanced 
and  profited  by.  Sometimes  whole  countrysides  were 
affected  by  these  "manipulations."  It  is  safe  to 
assume  that  these  small  matters  did  not  bother  the 
consciences  of  the  enterprising  directors  of  the 
Company,  nor  affect  the  sensibilities  of  the  share- 
holders. On  the  contrary,  they  would  have  been 
perfectly  astounded  if  anyone  had  pointed  out  that 
the  money  which  they  received  was,  to  put  it  charit- 
ably, slightly  tainted. 

These  robust  Hollanders  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  were  famous  for  their  tolerance 
toward  all  denominations,  and  not  less  famous  for 
the  hospitality  with  which  they  received  all  those  who 
fled  from  their  own  countries  on  account  of  religious 
or  political  persecution.  But  they  who  had  such 
vigorous  ideas  of  political  and  religious  freedom  for 
the  Europeans  had  equally  energetic  notions  when  it 
came  to  making  profit  from  the  "heathens"  or 
"niggers."  Apparently  their  consciences  did  not  at 
any  time  bother  them  on  this  point. 

[78] 


Moreover,  the  Hollanders  were  still  deprived  of  all 
advantages  flowing  from  the  precepts  and  teachings 
of  modern  colonizing.  They  had  not  been  able  to 
observ-e  the  methods  of  a  Christian  nation  in  the 
Congo,  which  in  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century 
brought  so  successfully  the  kindly  teachings  of  Christ 
to  darkest  Africa,  thereby  Christianizing  a  host  of 
natives  into  their  graves;  nor  the  methods  of  a  cour- 
teous Oriental  nation  in  "de-Christianizing"  its 
neighbor. 

To  say  the  least,  those  were  vigorous  and  relent- 
less times.  The  methods  employed  were  in  keeping 
with  the  religious  intolerance  and  the  savage  views 
of  the  majorities.  We  must  therefore  view  the  actions 
of  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  Company  from 
period  to  period,  in  the  light  of  the  status  of  advance- 
ment which  European  thought  had  generally  acquired 
at  a  corresponding  period.  And  if  we  do  this,  we 
must  be  more  impressed  with  the  restraint  which  was 
exercised  than  with  the  license  which  was  tolerated. 
That  the  newly  organized  Company  was  expected 
to  acquire  power  and  become  a  world-factor  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  Admiral  of  Arragon 
declared,  soon  after  its  incorporation,  that  it  was  a 
menace  to  the  Spanish  Empire,  a  menace  equal  in 
danger  to  that  of  the  formation  of  the  Republic  of 
the  United  Netherlands  itself.  How  great  a  compli- 
ment, both  to  the  Netherlands  and  to  the  Company, 
was  hidden  in  this  statement  can  be  easily  seen  when 
it   is   remembered   that   at   that   time   the  Spanish 

[79] 


kingdom  was  the  mightiest  empire  known  and  one  of 
the  greatest  and  most  powerful  the  world  has  ever 
known,  while  the  so-called  "Low  Lands"  contained 
less  than  three  million  inhabitants  and  were  by  com- 
parison a  mere  speck  on  the  map  of  the  world. 

The  States  General  of  the  Republic  of  the  Nether- 
lands granted  a  charter  for  twenty-one  years  to  the 
Netherlands  East  Indian  Company  with  the  sole 
right  to  trade  with  Oriental  countries  situated  between 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
What  today  would  be  called  in  the  United  States 
a  modern  corporation's  charter,  constitution,  and 
by-laws  was,  het  octrooi,  granted  by  the  States  Gen- 
eral to  the  East  Indian  Company.  This  charter 
was  renewed  from  time  to  time.  Furthermore,  with 
the  permit,  a  penal  statute  was  enacted,  prohibiting 
anyone  in  the  Republic  from  engaging  in  this  trade 
except  the  above-named  Company.  The  penalty  was 
the  loss  of  ship  and  cargo.  Hereby  a  monopoly  was 
created  which  had  in  itself  the  seed  of  decay.  For 
a  student  of  the  history  of  finance,  it  would  be 
interesting  to  scrutinize  closely  the  financial  policy 
of  this  Company  from  its  inception  to  its  expira- 
tion. For  our  purpose  the  following  particulars  must 
suffice. 

The  Company,  at  the  time  of  its  birth,  had  no 
fixed  minimum  or  maximum  capital.  Every  citizen 
of  the  Republic,  yes,  even  any  resident,  was  allowed 
to  subscribe  to  the  capital  stock  for  any  amount  he 
desired.     These  subscriptions  amounted  to  about  six 

[80] 


and  a  half  million  guilders,  of  which  more  than  one- 
half  was  subscribed  by  the  merchants  of  Amsterdam 
alone. 

Amsterdam  subscribed  for  3,670,000  florins,  Mid- 
dleburg  for  1,300,000  florins,  Delft  469,000  florins, 
Rotterdam  173,000  florins,  Hoorn  267,000  florins, 
Enkhuizen  540,000  florins.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  Rotterdam,  now  the  first  commercial  city  in  the 
Netherlands  and  the  second  largest  port  in  Europe, 
was  at  that  time  almost  negligible,  while  other  cities 
like  Enkhuizen  and  Middleburg,  then  so  prominent, 
have  now  slumped  to  much  inferior  places. 

While  the  shares  were  issued  at  par,  they  were 
quoted  in  1622  at  300  per  cent,  and  about  a  century 
later  (1720)  at  1,260  per  cent.  This  was  their  peak 
price,  for  in  1750  they  stood  at  750,  and  in  178 1  at  215. 
In  1 6 10  the  first  dividend  was  paid.  It  may  be  well 
to  obser\'e  here  that  Hollanders  have  been  educated 
for  a  long  time  to  the  so-called  deferred-dividend 
finance.  Generally  speaking  the  American  public  does 
not  care  to  absorb  shares  unless  an  almost  immedi- 
ate dividend  can  be  assured.  The  great  success  of 
many  of  the  Netherlands  enterprises  is  immediately 
traceable  to  this  willingness  to  wait,  for  years  if 
necessary,  for  the  first  dividend. 

In  that  year  (1610)  a  dividend  of  13  2I  per  cent 
was  paid,  averaging  therefore  about  15  per  cent  a  year. 
In  161 1  the  Company  paid  30  per  cent,  but  the  share- 
holders had  to  wait  eight  years  (until  16 19)  for  another 
dividend,  that  time  of  30  per  cent.    From  that  year  on, 

[81] 


with  the  exception  of  1689,  regular  dividends  were 
paid  until  1782.  The  average  over  all  the  years  of 
the  Company's  existence  was  18  per  cent.  (For  the 
last  ten  years  [1910-19]  the  sugar  companies  operat- 
ing in  the  Indies  [particularly  Java]  have  paid  on  an 
average  of  1 7xV  P^r  cent  dividends,  besides  important 
extra  compensations  known  as  tantiemes,  to  the  chief 
officers  and  employees.) 

The  first  number  of  directors  or  managers  {hewind- 
voerders)  was  seventy-three,  but  gradually  this  number 
was  reduced.  In  addition  there  was  a  central  body 
of  supervising  members,  called  de  Heeren  ij  (The 
Seventeen  Gentlemen).  The  charter  of  the  Company 
was  renewed  or  amended  in  the  years  1623,  1647, 
1673,  1700,  1741,  1742,  1743,  1755,  1777,  1796,  and 
1 798.  It  consisted  of  forty-six  articles.  These  articles 
contained  a  number  of  provisions  in  regard  to  the 
curtailment  of  possible  abuses  and  usurpation  of 
powers  of  the  chief  officers  of  the  corporation,  and 
the  history  of  the  Company  shows  that  these  articles 
were  not  inserted  in  vain. 

Several  times  complaint  was  made  in  regard  to 
surmised  grafting  {knoeieryen)  and  the  States  General 
of  the  Republic  endeavored  to  circumvent  these 
alleged  abuses,  when  the  charter  was  first  renewed 
in  1623,  by  gi^ang  extra  power  to  a  committee  of 
principal  stockholders,  sworn  to  do  their  duty.  These 
men  were  known  as  beeedigde  participataten.  They 
had  a  superNisory  power  over  the  principal  financial 
transactions  of  the  directors.    Evil  tongues,  however, 

[82] 


claimed  that  these  gentlemen  were  soon  on  a  very 
amiable  footing  with  those  whom  they  had  to  watch, 
with  results  easily  to  be  surmised.  There  were  also  a 
number  of  directors  in  extraordinary,  appointed  by 
the  constituted  authorities,  who  were  supposed  to 
exercise  a  qualified  control.  These  gentlemen  were 
more  or  less  viewed  as  spies  by  the  regular  directors, 
and  their  popularity  with  the  latter  remained  a 
debatable  quantity. 

Article  34  gave  to  the  Company  a  monopoly 
in  the  East  Indian  trade  against  all  other  Nether- 
landers,  and  Article  3  5  bestowed  practically  sovereign 
rights  on  the  Company,  making  it  a  government  within 
a  government. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  under  which  the 
Company  labored  was  its  dual  capacity.  In  one 
respect  it  was  a  trading  company,  pure  and  simple, 
bound  to  make  large  profits  for  the  shareholders. 
It  took  the  generally  disliked,  if  not  hated,  position 
of  the  absentee  landowner.  This  side  of  the  Company 
was  especially  represented  by  the  trustees  (bewind- 
voerders)  and  the  "Director  General,"  residing  in  the 
Netherlands. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  was  a  sovereign,  with  all 
the  rights  and  duties  of  such.  Provision  was  made 
that  the  directors  should  appoint  a  governor  general, 
who  would  have  full  charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  Indies, 
and  that  they  likewise  should  appoint  a  Council  of 
the  Indies,  the  members  of  which  were  the  legal 
advisers  of  the  governor  general.     Those   governors 

[83] 


general  who  happened  to  be  high-minded  men  with 
statesmanlike  vision,  and  who  were  **on  the  ground," 
represented  the  sovereign  side  of  the  question.  The 
governors  general  and  the  residents  under  them  very 
often  visualized  a  future  political  empire  in  the  archi- 
pelago. It  was  they  who  exercised  the  great  political 
powers  conferred  on  the  Company  by  Article  35,  "to 
make  treaties  and  war,  to  build  fortresses  in  the  name 
of  the  States  General  of  the  United  Netherlands,  etc. " 
They  sometimes  received  the  co-operation  of  the 
directors  in  Holland,  but  often  they  were  opposed, 
for  the  latter  took  the  commercial  view  and  arrived  at 
their  decisions  with  eyes  fixed  on  the  balance  sheets.^ 

INSULINDE  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  AND  EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURIES 

Before  proceeding  with  the  more  modern  history  of 
the  archipelago,  it  may  be  well  to  endeavor  to  visual- 
ize the  condition  these  islands  were  in  when  the  white 
man  "discovered"  them,  and  then  consider  what 
influence,  if  any,  the  white  man  exercised  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 

For  anyone  who  has  not  visited  the  Orient,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  conjure  before  the  mind  the 
conditions  as  they  prevail  there  now.    It  has  been 

'  Even  today  the  same  struggle,  though  of  course  in  a  modified 
form,  is  observed  in  the  islands.  The  representatives  there  of 
"big  business"  are  occasionally  opposed  in  their  views  of  economic 
improvement  by  their  home  office.  And  this  is  most  natural,  for 
the  former  have  to  satisfy  the  population  among  whom  they  live, 
and  from  which  they  draw  their  labor  supply,  while  the  latter  must 
satisfy  its  numerous  stockholders. 

[84] 


truly  said  that  no  matter  how  much  one  may  read 
or  think  of  the  Orient,  one  will  find  it  far  different 
from  what  one  imagined.  It  therefore  follows  that 
it  must  be  still  more  difficult  to  imagine  the  conditions 
which  for  several  centuries  preceded  present  condi- 
tions. The  Orient,  however,  does  not  change  as 
rapidly  as  the  Occident.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
tenacious  of  thought  and  bound  to  traditions.  In  a 
great  many  aspects  conditions  of  today  are  the  same 
as  they  were  a  thousand  years  ago.  Since  the  Oriental 
mind  clings  to  customs  and  traditions  very  much 
more  than  the  Occidental  mind,  it  is  therefore  much 
easier  to  deduce  conditions  in  the  past  from  those 
existing  in  the  present,  than  it  would  be  to  make  the 
same  deductions  in  regard  to  European  or  American 
conditions  and  institutions. 

From  the  short  sketch  contained  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  ethnology  it  must  be  apparent  that  there 
is  not  now,  and  never  was,  a  general  national  exist- 
ence in  the  Indies.  An  ethnological  map  of  this  archi- 
pelago looks  very  much  like  a  crazy  quilt.  Not 
only  are  the  inhabitants  of  these  islands  of  widely 
different  blood  and  descent,  but  there  has  never  been 
any  material  fusion  of  tribes  and  nationalities.  The 
people  of  adjacent  or  neighboring  localities  have  not 
only  radically  different  customs,  traditions,  and  ideals, 
but  they  speak  entirely  different  languages,  and  use 
different  characters  for  writing. 

For  instance,  the  island  of  Java  is  admittedly  the 
farthest   advanced,   from   both   a   material    and  an 

[8S] 


ethical  standpoint.  Still  in  this  island  alone  there  are 
three  distinct  nations,  not  to  mention  many  foreigners 
who,  while  interspersed  with  the  general  population, 
maintain  a  separate  existence.  In  Western  Java  we 
find  the  Sundanese,  a  people  with  a  separate  lan- 
guage, traditions,  and  folklore.  They  speak  Sundanese, 
which  is  not  understood  by  the  inhabitants  of  Central 
Java,  who  are  presumed  to  be  the  true  Javanese, 
and  who  speak  both  high  and  low  Javanese.  The 
people  inhabiting  the  eastern  part  of  Java  are  the 
Madurese,  and  they  also  speak  a  language  totally 
different  from  the  Sundanese,  and  materially  different 
from  the  Javanese  spoken  in  Central  Java.  The 
Sundanese  use  the  Arabian-Sundanese  alphabet.  The 
Javanese  and  Madurese  languages  have  a  "sound" 
alphabet  consisting  of  twenty  characters. 

A  certain  percentage  of  the  more  educated  mem- 
bers of  each  nation,  especially  those  living  in  the 
coast  districts,  speak  Malay  in  a  simple  form,  this 
being  the  commercial  language  of  the  whole  Far 
East.  Malay  uses  the  same  Arabian  characters  as 
those  of  the  Arabian  and  Turkish  languages,  and  it  is 
generally  asserted  that  one  who  has  a  working  knowl- 
edge of  Malay  can  read  simple  Arabian,  but  not 
Turkish.  Throughout  the  archipelago,  eight  or  ten 
main  languages  are  spoken,  while  as  many  as  sixty 
dialects  are  in  use.  Inasmuch  as  most  of  the  natives 
of  each  district  speak  only  their  own  particular 
tongue,  there  can  be  no  interchange  of  ideas  among 
the   majority   of   them.     The   Netherlands  tongue, 

[86] 


known  as  "Dutch,"  is  now  making  slow  headway 
among  some  of  the  natives. 

If  one  considers  that  besides  the  difference  in 
blood,  customs,  and  languages,  there  is  also  a  vast 
dissimilarity  in  the  religions  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  islands,  and  even  between  regions  on  the  same 
island,  it  becomes  apparent  that  "national  life" 
was  at  the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  white  man  quite 
out  of  the  question.    It  is  still  for  that  matter. 

Java,  for  instance,  is  almost  entirely  Mohammedan 
and  the  immediately  adjacent  islands  of  Bali  and 
part  of  Lombok  are  purely  Brahmanistic.  In  some 
parts  of  Northern  Celebes  and  adjacent  islands, 
the  Christian  religion  has  made  considerable  headway 
among  the  natives,  while  again  in  Borneo  and  other 
islands,  where  neither  the  Hindu,  Mohammedan, 
nor  Christian  religion  has  made  any  impression, 
idolatry  is  practiced. 

If  these  are  the  conditions  prevailing  at  the  present 
time,  after  centuries  of  contact  with  the  white  man, 
after  modern  transportation  has  brought  these 
different  parts  closely  together,  it  is  easily  understood 
that  the  early  white  visitors  had  to  deal  not  with  a 
"nation,"  but  with  a  conglomeration  of  small  com- 
munities and  tribes,  all  having  separate  traditions, 
ideals,  customs,  religions,  social  and  political  beliefs. 
There  could  therefore  be  no  question  of  national 
ideals  or  a  common  goal  to  be  reached;  neither  could 
one  hope  for  racial  evolution  along  national  lines  for 
centuries  to  come. 

[87] 


Indeed,  the  people  inhabiting  these  islands  were 
and  are  in  widely  differing  stages  of  social  and  moral 
evolution.  They  shaded  down  from  those  who  lived 
in  the  comparatively  high  state  of  Hindu  civilization, 
affected  sometimes  on  the  surface  by  Mohammedan- 
ism, to  the  savages,  cannibals,  and  head-hunting 
tribes  in  the  interior  of  some  of  the  islands.  Where 
a  qualified  civilization  had  been  reached,  Oriental 
satraps  and  sultans  had  established  themselves  in 
barbaric  splendor,  considering  their  subjects  as 
slaves  to  their  whims  and  wishes. 

They  were  in  constant  warfare  with  one  another, 
and  their  subjects  were  simply  pawns  on  their  own 
private  chess  boards  of  ambition  and  strife.  This 
condition  was  made  comparatively  easy,  for  the 
difference  in  blood  and  customs  brought  in  its  train 
suspicion,  contempt,  and  hatred  for  the  inhabitants 
of  another  state,  or  even  for  the  inhabitants  of  an 
adjacent  village,  so  that  it  was  easy  to  inflame  them. 
The  Oriental  in  that  respect  seems  to  have  been 
centuries  ahead  of  the  Europeans. 

At  the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  white  man  in 
the  archipelago,  the  Hindu  influence  was  the  strongest 
and  most  prevalent.  To  a  large  extent  it  still  is. 
When  the  writer  visited  the  court  of  one  of  the 
younger  princes  in  central  Java  in  tgig,  he  witnessed 
a  marriage  ceremony  of  a  member  of  the  sultan's 
household,  conducted  with  all  the  old  Buddhist  for- 
malities, notwithstanding  that  the  host  and  all  the  par- 
ticipants were  presumed  to  be  devout  Mohammedans. 

[88] 


When  first  the  Portuguese,  and  afterward  the 
Hollanders,  arrived  overseas  in  these  islands,  they 
found  approximately  these  conditions: 

In  Java  there  was  an  old  Hindu  civilization, 
overlaid  with  a  thin  veneer  of  Mohammedanism. 
They  found  native  princes,  such  as  the  Sultan  of 
Bantam,  the  King  of  Mataram,  and  other  chiefs 
and  nobles  ruling  over  a  comparatively  docile  Hindu- 
Malay  population.  These  princes  were  engaged  in 
continuous  internal  warfare.  Those  who  had  become 
Mohammedans  gladly  combined  and  declared  "holy 
wars"  on  those  who  remained  Buddhist.  All  exer- 
cised absolute  power  over  their  subjects,  as  was  com- 
mon until  recent  times  in  all  Oriental  countries. 

On  the  outlying  islands  were  likewise  many 
powerful  rulers,  such  as  the  Sultan  of  Ternate,  the 
Sultan  of  Makassar  (Celebes),  the  Sultan  of  Atjeh 
(Sumatra) ,  and  many  others. 

There  were  also  "spots"  of  civilization,  mostly 
among  the  descendants  of  the  Javanese  and  Hindus, 
who  had  established  themselves  on  other  islands  as, 
for  instance,  near  Palembang,  Sumatra. 

The  white  man  found  that  Java  was,  for  those 
times,  densely  populated,  while  the  other  islands 
were  very  sparsely  occupied  (as  they  still  are), 
and  while  the  rule  of  the  princes  extended  over 
practically  all  Java,  the  rule  of  the  outlying  sultan- 
ates, with  only  a  few  exceptions,  covered  the  coast 
ranges  only,  the  interior  places  being  occupied  by 
hostile  and  savage  tribes.    Pirates  from  without  and 

[89] 


head-hunters  from  within  were  constantly  engaged  in 
expeditions  to  the  different  coast  districts,  and  in  a 
large  part  of  the  archipelago  people  lived  in  fear  and 
trembling  from  these  marauders,  who  in  cruelty  and 
ferociousness  made  the  Norsemen  of  Europe  look  like 
benevolent  Christian  gentlemen.  Even  some  of  the 
sultans  were  not  averse  to  the  practice  of  piracy, 
whenever  the  opportunity  seemed  to  be  propitious. 

In  addition  to  the  native  population,  there  was 
quite  a  number  of  Arabs,  who  were  the  retail  traders 
of  the  country.  To  a  large  extent  they  still  are,  to- 
gether with  the  Chinese. 

There  had  always  been  a  constant  flow  of  travel 
from  the  islands  to  Arabia  and  vice  versa.  In  the 
first  place  Arabs,  ever  since  the  great  invasion,  and 
even  prior  to  that,  had  come  to  these  far-off  lands  to 
trade.  Again,  since  Java  had  become  Mohammedan, 
many  pilgrims  from  the  Indies  flocked  to  Mecca 
and  the  grave  of  the  Prophet.  This  travel  continues 
today.  While  most  of  the  other  islands  were  occupied 
by  savage  or  semi-savage  tribes,  Java  had  enjoyed 
first  a  Hindu  and  afterward  a  mixed  Mohammedan 
and  Hindu  civili2ation  for  centuries.  Powerful 
rulers  had  estabHshed  themselves  in  the  islands,  and 
one  of  the  principal  states  was  the  Hindu  state  of 
Madjapahit  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
During  the  Mohammedan  invasion,  this  state  had 
been  annihilated  and  was  succeeded  by  the  state  of 
Demak.  Demak  finally  gave  way  to  the  state  of 
Mataram.     Thus  in  Java  a  Hindu  civilization  had 

M 


firmly  taken  root.  Here  was  built  up  a  whole  system 
of  nobility  and  land  tenure  which  has  a  faint  resem- 
blance to  the  feudal  system  of  Europe. 

In  Europe  under  the  feudal  system,  and  especially 
in  England,  where  the  whole  structure  of  the  state 
was  based  on  its  feudal  system  of  landownership, 
with  its  many  kinds  of  fees,  feoffments,  and  estates, 
the  power  of  the  overlords  was  limited  first  by  custom 
and  the  innate  desire  of  the  white  man  for  individual 
liberty,  and  afterward  by  an  elaborate  system  of 
adjudicated  land  law.  In  the  Indies,  however,  this 
overlordship  was  very  poorly  curbed,  either  by  cus- 
tomary law  or  by  individual  effort. 

In  some  countries  of  Europe,  the  early  systems 
of  land  tenure  and  the  old  real  estate  laws  are  some- 
what puzzling  to  the  casual  student,  but  they  are  the 
very  simplest  ABC  as  compared  with  the  mass  of 
systems  and  sub-systems  existing  in  the  different 
islands.  Generally  speaking,  one  may  say  that  the 
right  obtained  by  the  subject  was  a  usufructuary 
right  only,  a  kind  of  tenancy  for  life  and  during 
occupancy.  Afterward  some  of  these  rights  became 
hereditary,  and  also  subject  to  voluntary  or  forced 
transfer,  as  for  instance  in  the  case  of  debt.  The 
rights  were  complicated  and  led  sometimes  to  con- 
ditions which  resemble  the  shifting  and  springing 
uses  of  the  old  English  law.  These  rights  were  con- 
fined to  the  inhabitants  of  each  dessa  or  village. 
Sometimes  the  whole  village  migrated,  or  rather, 
shifted  its  base  of  agricultural  operations,  in  order  to 

[91] 


obtain  new  ground.  The  soil  was  robbed  and  then 
abandoned  for  virgin  soil. 

While  the  land  customs  prevailing  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  archipelago  were  therefore  widely  differ- 
ent, in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  unoccupied 
lands,  those  which  were  not  cultivated,  belonged 
directly  to  the  sultans,  afterward  to  the  Company, 
and  now  to  the  government.  The  status  of  these 
lands  compares  with  that  of  the  public  domain  in 
the  United  States.  White  men  could  not  obtain  a  title 
to  them  in  fee  simple  absolute,'  and  neither  could 
the  natives.  They  were  either  used  for  the  prince, 
or  in  common  by  the  villagers,  or  lay  unused.  A 
usufructuary  right  could  generally  be  obtained  by  the 
natives,  and  if  this  right  was  uninterruptedly  exercised 
and  for  a  beneficial  purpose  it  often  ripened  into  a 
possessory  right,  which  in  many  cases  was  transferable, 
but  only  to  a  person  belonging  to  the  same  village. 
In  other  villages  the  land  was  all  held  in  common, 
to  be  allotted  yearly  to  the  farmers  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Even  today,  possession  of  land  in  fee  simple  abso- 
lute, in  an  alodial  sense  of  ownership,  is  practically 
unknown  except  for  town  lots  within  the  incorporated 
cities.    In  the  cities  and  villages  the  necessity  of 

'  An  exception  to  this  rule  was  the  granting  of  some  estates 
by  the  East  Indian  Company  on  the  islands  of  Java  and  Celebes, 
and  to  an  even  greater  extent  the  creating  of  such  private  estates 
by  the  British  government  during  the  temporary  English  occupation 
in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  The  goverament,  however, 
exerts  itself  gradually  to  recover  this  land. 

[92] 


absolute  ownership  was  felt  in  the  Indies  as  formerly 
in  England,  where  it  gave  rise  to  the  estates  in  burg- 
age. The  complexity  of  the  old  law  is  as  bewildering 
as  the  real  estate  law.  Like  the  common  law  of 
England,  it  was  a  customary  law.  In  accordance 
with  the  teachings  of  Islam,  the  customary  law  or 
Adat  (also  known  as  the  Hadat)  could  be  given 
credence  only  when  the  written  law  was  silent  on 
the  subject,  or  else  when  that  law  specifically  referred 
to  the  Adat. 

It  has  been  observed  before  that  the  Hindu 
customs  were  still  prevalent  everywhere,  notwith- 
standing Islam.  So  it  was  with  the  law.  The  cus- 
tomary laws  of  the  various  nationalities  and  tribes, 
based  on  Buddhist  prescription,  took  precedence 
generally  over  the  Moslem  laws  of  later  date,  despite 
the  Koran.  For  instance  the  Moslem  law  does  not 
recognize  personal  indenture  for  debt,  but  the  Hindu 
customary  law  or  old  Adat  does,  and  for  a  long  time, 
well  into  the  nineteenth  century,  this  custom  (so- 
called  pandelingschap)  generally  prevailed  throughout 
the  archipelago. 

Especially  in  middle  Java  among  the  former 
Buddhists  and  among  the  Malays  of  Sumatra  belong- 
ing to  the  Menangkabau  tribe,  the  Adat  was  much 
in  evidence.  But  because  the  law  was  a  customary 
law,  and  the  customs  of  the  tribes  and  nationalities 
differed  so  widely,  there  never  was  nor  could  there 
be  any  semblance  of  unity  in  what  might  be  called 
the  native  jurisprudence  of  the  archipelago. 

[93] 


With  the  overlordship  of  the  land  by  the  sultans 
went  a  vast  power  over  the  population  and  its 
labor.  By  inclination  and  necessity  the  Javanese  is  a 
farmer.  The  soil  has  been  incredibly  productive,  and 
has  required  little  work  to  produce  a  large  return/ 
From  time  immemorial  the  sawahs  (rice  fields)  of 
the  Javanese  have  received  his  undivided  attention, 
and  irrigation  has  been  practiced  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Even  today  we  can  find  in  Java  water  conduits 
and  dams  in  rivers  which  have  been  there  for  ages. 
For  years  the  native  had  the  custom  of  counting 
his  age  by  the  number  of  crops,  and  of  counting  the 
time  of  the  year  by  the  condition  of  his  "paddie" 
or  rice  crop. 

Now,  as  for  centuries  past,  a  son  of  the  soil, 
the  Javanese  stays  by  preference  in  his  own  village 
or  dessa.  In  fact  it  can  be  truly  said  that  rice-farming 
is  as  near  to  the  heart  of  the  Javanese  as  viticulture 
is  to  the  heart  of  the  French  farmer.  When  driving 
over  Java,  one  is  continually  impressed  by  the  peace- 
ful spirit  which  seems  to  hover  over  the  landscape. 
Small  Javanese  boys  drive  carabaos  (tame  buffalo) 
to  their  daily  mud  baths  or  sit  upon  their  backs 
while  they  graze  on  the  long,  tough  grass  which  seems 
to  grow  everywhere. 

The  Javanese  whom  one  now  sees  tilling  the  soil 
is  a  freeman,  while  his  ancestor  was  a  serf  of  the  soil 

'  At  the  present  time  the  government  is  making  a  determined 
effort  to  induce  the  population  to  use  artificial  fertilizers  and  practice 
rotation  of  crops. 

[94]  . 


and  for  all  practical  purposes  a  bondsman  of  his 
native  ruler.  As  in  Europe,  where  the  nobility  boasts 
of  its  princes,  dukes,  earls,  counts,  viscounts,  barons, 
baronets,  and  knights,  so  in  Java  a  whole  hierarchy 
of  nobility  grew  up  under  the  Hindu  civilization. 
At  the  top  of  the  pyramid  stood  of  course  the  inde- 
pendent and  semi-independent  rulers,  mostly  called 
sultans  or  rajahs.  They  could  be  compared  with  the 
dukes  and  great  counts  of  olden  times  in  Continental 
Europe,  who  likewise  indulged  in  continuous  warfare 
with  one  another,  considered  their  subjects  as  so 
much  material  in  their  game  for  power,  and  seldom 
recognized  an  effective  overlordship  of  any  kind. 
Immediately  below  these  independent  rulers  was  a 
class  of  men  who  bore  the  title  of  pangeran.  This 
title  may  be  translated  by  the  word  prince,  and  they 
were  almost  invariably  connected  by  blood  with  one 
of  the  ruling  sultans.  The  next  title  was  radhen 
adipati,  and  under  these  came  the  radhen  toemengoeng, 
radhen  mas,  and  radhen  (or  raden). 

As  a  matter  of  course,  the  Portuguese,  and  the 
Hollanders  who  came  after  them,  made  their  treaties 
with  the  ruling  kings  or  sultans.  From  them  they 
obtained  the  concessions  to  erect  trading-posts  or 
factories  and  to  do  business  with  the  natives.  Through 
the  sultans  and  princes  they  obtained  the  much- 
coveted  spices  and  other  products  for  which  there  was 
a  constantly  growing  demand  in  Europe. 

One  should  keep  in  mind  that  the  Javanese  are 
not  traders  or  merchants  by  inclination  or  heredity. 

[95] 


In  those  early  days  they  seem  to  have  been  averse 
to  trade,  and  they  have  remained  so,  for  even  today 
the  "big  business"  is  all  done  by  the  white  man  or 
the  Chinese.  The  wholesale  business  is  controlled 
mostly  by  the  Chinese,  and  the  retailing  by  the 
Arabs  and  Chinese  together  (with  the  exception  of 
the  white  men's  stores,  tokos,  for  white  men's  custom), 
while  the  Javanese  simply  keep  the  small  eating- 
places,  warongs,  sometimes  in  connection  with  notion 
stores.  As  there  were  few  Javanese  merchants,  the 
Hollanders  were  of  necessity  compelled  to  deal  with 
the  poHtical  chiefs  of  the  different  nations.^  But 
while  the  first  foothold  in  the  islands  was  a  result 
of  compromising  with  the  sultans,  in  the  course  of 
years  it  became  apparent  that  slowly  but  surely 
the  white  man  must  be  the  protector  of  the  native 
against  the  descendants  of  the  very  princes  with 
whom  the  original  treaties  were  made,  and  today 
the  orang  blanda,  or  white  man,  is  the  bulwark  of 
protection  for  the  simple  native  dessaman  (villager) 
against  the  descendants  of  his  former  native  rulers. 
Customs  die  hard  in  the  Orient,  and  notwith- 
standing that  the  flag  of  Netherlands  has  been  flying 
for  nearly  three  hundred  years  over  the  Colonies, 
and  that  the  descendants  of  these  old  princes  and 
near-princes  are  simply  paid  officials  of  the  Nether- 

'  The  Malays  in  the  northern  part  of  Sumatra  and  some  other 
parts  of  the  Indies  are  much  keener  (called  "pienter")  in  trade  than 
the  Javanese.  The  result  is  that  the  Arabs  have  by  far  less  influence 
among  these  ^Malays  than  they  have  among  the  gentler  Javanese, 
whom  they  oppress  with  usurious  methods. 

[96] 


lands  government,  as  they  have  been  for  a  hundred 
years,  still  the  natives  pay  extraordinary  deference 
to  them,"  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  continuous  watch- 
fulness of  the  white  government  ofl&cials,  even  today, 
some  of  the  native  princes  would  have  almost  a  free 
field  for  any  amount  of  oppression  and  extortion. 

The  contact  between  the  Netherlands  East 
Indian  Company  and  the  native  sultans  and  chiefs 
was  at  first  purely  commercial.  It  was  practically 
the  same  kind  of  contact  which  the  Hollanders 
maintained  as  a  monopoly  in  Japan  for  centuries, 
for  it  was  trade  and  trade  only  which  brought  the 
Hollanders  to  the  Indies.  But  inasmuch  as  the  sultans 
of  the  outlying  states  were  continuously  engaged  in 
piracy,  and  as  it  was  all-important  for  the  success 
of  the  great  spice  trade  that  order  be  maintained  and 
a  stop  put  to  the  internal  warfare,  the  political  power 
of  the  Company  was  constantly  extended  and  new 
forts  built. 

It  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  Hollanders  of  those 
times  used  the  same  ruthlessness  in  the  treatment  of 
natives  and  their  white  opponents  as  they  used  among 
themselves;  but  still  they  showed  remarkable  restraint 
and  liberality  in  some  respects.  They  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  their  great  success  by  resolutely  refusing  to 

'  Shortly  before  the  departure  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Djokja- 
karta (a  vassal  of  the  Dutch  government)  for  Holland  in  the  fall 
of  1919,  the  writer  stayed  at  the  Hotel  des  Indes  at  Weltevreden, 
near  Batavia.  The  Crown  Prince  likewise  has  his  apartments  there. 
A  constant  stream  of  native  nobles  could  be  observed,  wending  its 
way  to  the  latter's  headquarters  and  approaching  the  future  Sultan 
of  Djokjakarta  with  signs  of  the  utmost  respect,  if  not  abasement. 

[97] 


adopt  the  system  which  most  colonizing  nations 
have  used  in  the  past,  and  even  use  now,  of  attempt- 
ing to  force  the  institutions  of  the  mother  country 
on  the  unwiUing  native  people.  The  Hollanders  not 
only  carefully  refrained  from  interfering  in  any  way 
with  the  rehgious  life  of  the  natives,  but  they  also 
respected  the  customs  and  laws  of  the  land.  As 
their  influence  and  power  extended,  they  took  into 
the  service  of  their  new  government  the  former 
rulers  and  princes,  doing  this  in  such  a  tactful 
way  as  not  to  give  unnecessary  umbrage.  While 
the  Company  was  therefore  scrupulously  careful  not 
to  interfere  with  the  rehgion  and  social  customs  of 
the  country,  still  it  was  not  an  exception  to  the 
rule  then  prevailing  in  the  colonizing  world  of  paying 
little  consideration  to  the  individual  native  and  his 
welfare. 

The  expected  profits  which  brought  the  Company 
to  the  islands  were  realized  in  various  ways,  mainly 
through  the  trade  in  spices  which  were  purchased 
at  a  very  low  price  and  sold  at  an  enormous  advance. 
If  the  natives  refused  to  raise  sufficient  amounts 
to  supply  the  markets  of  the  Company,  they  were 
often  compelled  to  do  so  by  their  chiefs  acting  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Company.  In  addition  the 
Company  had  many  other  sources  of  income.  Profit 
was  obtained  from  imports,  from  monopoHes,  from 
import  and  export  duties,  from  a  tax  levied  on  the 
sale  of  realty  within  the  villages,  and  from  the  coinage 
of  millions  of  sniall  change. 

[98] 


There  were  several  reasons  why  the  rights  of  the 
natives  were  given  scant  attention.  In  the  first  place 
it  was  the  trend  of  the  times.  No  colonizing  nation 
at  that  time,  or  for  several  centuries  previously, 
had  given  any  attention  to  the  rights  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  countries  which  they  had  taken  by  the 
sword.  To  be  conquered  by  a  superior  race  was  truly 
to  be  placed  in  bondage. 

Furthermore,  for  the  first  fifty  years  of  their  colo- 
nizing period  the  Netherlands  themselves  were  engaged 
in  a  struggle  for  life  or  death  with  the  great  Spanish 
Empire.  The  profits  which  were  derived  from  the 
Indies  were  being  used  to  a  very  material  extent 
in  financing  this  struggle.  To  the  Dutch  this  seemed 
a  holy  war,  as  indeed  it  was,  for  it  involved  the 
freedom  of  religion. 

The  Netherlanders  of  the  seventeenth  century 
were  obsessed  with  the  idea  that  God  was  with  them 
in  their  struggles,  an  idea,  by  the  way,  of  which 
those  Netherlanders  had  no  monopoly,  for  most 
of  the  armies  of  the  warring  nations  were  only  too 
much  inclined  to  bend  their  knees  on  the  eve  of 
battle,  praying  for  divine  guidance  and  strength,  and 
then  next  day,  with  the  name  of  God  on  their  lips, 
to  commit  the  worst  atrocities  imaginable. 

It  was  not  an  easy  task  for  the  mother  country 
to  maintain  a  semblance  of  order  and  safety  in  an 
archipelago  many  thousands  of  miles  away,  in  extent 
forty-six  times  that  of  her  own  territory,  with  a 
population  seven  times  larger  than  her  own,  Uving 

[99] 


in  constant  turmoil  and  strife.  It  often  took  heroic 
means  to  accomplish  any  result  worth  while. 

The  attention  of  the  Company  was  first  directed 
to  Java  as  offering  the  greatest  possibilities,  for  while 
its  first  proceedings  were  of  purely  a  commercial 
nature,  it  soon  began  to  take  advantage  of  the 
pohtical  rights  granted  by  the  States  General  of 
the  Netherlands. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  permanent  settlement 
in  Java,  the  Netherlands  merchants  found  the 
trade  of  the  whole  western  part  of  the  island  con- 
trolled by  the  powerful  Sultan  of  Bantam.  His 
sultanate  not  only  extended  over  the  western  part 
of  Java,  but  also  over  the  southern  part  of  Sumatra, 
the  so-called  Lampong  district.  In  the  harbor  of 
Bantam  was  concentrated  the  principal  pepper  trade 
of  the  island.  This  coveted  trade  was  exclusively 
in  the  hands  of  the  Sultan  of  Bantam  and  the  nobles 
immediately  surrounding  the  court.  Under  them  a 
great  many  Chinese  merchants  operated,  and  some 
of  them  had  acquired  considerable  wealth  and 
influence.  A  few  of  the  Portuguese  discoverers  of 
the  island,  and  their  descendants,  were  also  located 
there.  Later  the  British  East  Indian  Company 
established  a  factory.  French  and  Danish  merchants 
likewise  participated  in  the  trade.  As  a  consequence, 
intrigues,  plots,  and  counterplots  were  hatched  by 
the  representatives  of  the  different  nations,  who 
endeavored  to  get  the  advantage.  However,  for  a 
long  time  the  Sultan  of  Bantam  managed  to  levy 

[lOo] 


a  heavy  export  duty  on  all  pepper  sent  out  of  his 
territory. 

The  balance  of  the  island  of  Java  was,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  under  the  sway  and  dominion 
of  the  powerful  King  of  Mataram  who  resided  at 
his  capital,  Karta.  For  some  time  he  had  had  diffi- 
culty in  enforcing  his  authority  on  other  rulers,  such 
as  the  Sultan  or  King  of  Surabaya,  and  the  Sultan 
of  Samarang,  but  he  was  generally  recognized  as  the 
overlord  of  Java.  The  Sultan  of  Bantam  alone  suc- 
ceeded in  mamtaining  his  independence. 

While  from  the  very  inception  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indian  Company,  it  was  granted  by  the  States 
General  of  the  RepubHc  of  the  United  Netherlands  a 
monopoly  of  trade  in  the  Indies,  as  against  all  other 
Netherlands  merchants,  this  monopoly  could  not 
be  enforced  against  the  native  rulers  or  the  foreign 
merchants,  especially  the  British  East  Indian  Com- 
pany. A  monopoly  against  these  two  classes  of 
individuals  could  be  obtained  only  by  driving  the 
latter  out  of  the  Indies  by  force  of  arms,  and  by 
acquiring  monopolistic  rights  through  treaties  or 
conquest  from  the  former.  The  whole  policy  of  the 
Netherlands  East  Indian  Company  at  home  and  in 
the  Indies  was  directed  toward  these  aims.  Each 
and  every  act  of  the  Council  of  Seventeen  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  of  the  governor  general  and  the 
Council  of  the  Indies  at  Batavia,  was  dominated 
and  controlled  by  these  aims.  It  was  therefore  the 
commercial  policy  of  the  Company  which  directed  its 

[loi] 


political  actions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Company 
being  a  semi-public  corporation,  a  creature  of  the 
state,  its  actions  in  the  Indies  were  necessarily  much 
affected  by  the  relations  of  peace  or  war  which  the 
mother  country  bore  to  other  colonizing  nations. 
In  many  instances  therefore  the  hands  of  the  governor 
general  were  withheld  from  action,  because  such 
action  in  the  Far  East  might  affect  adversely  the 
interests  of  the  mother  country  in  Europe. 

Finally,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  kingdom  of  England  and  the  republic 
of  the  Netherlands  agreed,  by  the  Treaty  of  West- 
minster, that  their  respective  East  Indian  com- 
panies, and  their  officials  and  servants  would  not 
be  allowed  to  engage  in  strife  and  warfare  with  one 
another  in  the  Indies,  except  after  mutual  consent 
of  the  mother  countries.  The  Netherlands  East 
Indian  Company's  poHcy  as  to  the  native  rulers 
was  the  poHcy  of  divide  et  impera.^  Following  this 
policy  to  its  logical  conclusion,  it  encouraged  the 
Sultan  of  Bantam  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
King  of  Mataram,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  was  not 
unwilling  at  the  proper  time  to  give  the  latter  aid 
and  comfort  against  the  former.  It  went  even 
farther.  Its  officials  very  often  mixed  in  the  endless 
intestine  strife  at  the  courts,  generally  aiding  the 
rightful  occupant  of  the  throne  against  a  powerful 
pretender. 

^  Geschiedenis  der  Nederlanders  op  Java,  by  M.  L.  van  Deventer, 
Vol.  I,  p.  123. 

[102] 


When  reading  the  history  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indian  Company  and  of  Java  in  those  days,  one 
is  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  Company  always 
delayed  granting  the  urgent  request  of  the  harassed 
prince  to  have  its  commanders  and  troops  interfere, 
until  the  ruler  was  in  actual  peril  of  losing  not  only 
his  crown,  but  his  life.  Thus  the  ruler  was  impressed 
with  the  idea  that  only  the  strong  and  ruthless  hand 
of  the  Company  had  been  able  to  save  him  from  de- 
struction, and  that  therefore  great  compensation  and 
favors  were  due  it. 

It  took  some  time,  however,  before  the  Company 
was  able  to  occupy  the  powerful  position  which  it 
finally  reached.  In  the  beginning  it  could  locate  an 
estabhshment  or  so-called  factory  only  on  the  site  of 
the  present  town  of  Batavia.  This  site  was  obtained 
as  a  concession  from  the  Pangeran  of  Djakatra,  a 
powerful  vassal  of  Mataram.  It  was  located  at  the 
borderline  between  the  domain  of  the  Sultan  of 
Bantam  and  the  kingdom  of  Mataram.  This  post 
was  established  by  Governor  General  Peter  Both, 
but  later  Governor  General  J.  P.  Coen  built  a  fort 
around  the  trading-post.  The  remains  of  this  fort 
still  exist. 

From  that  time  dates  the  struggle  between 
Batavia  and  Bantam  for  commercial  supremacy, 
a  struggle  which  lasted  for  more  than  eighty  years  and 
finally  ended  in  1682,  when  the  Sultan  of  Bantam 
granted  to  the  Company  the  long-wished-for  monopoly 
in  trade,  in  return  for  the  material  aid  which  the 

[103I 


Company  had  given  him  in  maintaining  his  rights 
against  pretenders. 

Long  prior  to  this  success  the  British  East  Indian 
Company  had  estabHshed  a  factory  at  Djakatra, 
as  well  as  one  at  Bantam.  Moreover,  a  great  many 
English  adventurers  had  appeared  in  the  archipelago, 
and  the  king  of  Mataram  finally  decided  to  drive  the 
hated  Holland  traders  from  the  islands.  He  was  aided 
and  abetted  by  the  rival  Europeans. 

Coen,  hearing  that  an  English  fleet  was  approach- 
ing, took  to  the  sea,  leaving  the  command  of  the 
forces  to  Van  den  Broeck.  He  gave  battle  which 
ended  in  a  draw,  and  then  set  sail  for  Amboina  in 
the  Moluccas,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  additional 
forces.  He  returned  to  the  infested  stronghold  just 
in  the  nick  of  time  to  save  the  fortress  and  its  garrison. 
He  then  stormed  the  native  stronghold  of  Djakatra 
(1619)  which  he  took,  and,  in  accordance  with  the 
amiable  habits  of  the  times,  put  the  garrison  to  the 
sword  and  burned  the  town.  From  the  ashes  of 
Djakatra  rose  the  present  city  of  Batavia.*  Later 
the  city  became  the  seat  of  the  governor  general, 
and  in  its  harbor  were  concentrated  all  the  ships 
sailing  to  and  from  other  trading-posts.  Several 
times  during  the  following  decades  the  Sultan  of 
Mataram  endeavored  to  storm  this  town,  but  each 
time  he  was  defeated. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  energetic  vitality  of 
Coen's  statesmanship,  it  is  only  necessary  to  give 

»  M.  L.  van  Deventer,  op.  cit.,  p.  123. 
[104] 


his  motto:  "Never  despair,  never  show  your  enemies 
any  consideration,  for  nothing  in  this  world  can 
hurt  or  harm  you,  because  God  is  with  you.  Never 
mind  your  former  mistakes,  for  great  work  is  still 
to  be  done  in  the  Indies. "  He  wrote  these  words  to 
the  directors  of  the  Company  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  it  may  be  said  truly  that  Coen  was  the  founder 
of  the  Netherlands  poHtical  empire  in  these  far-away 
regions. 

For  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  position  of  the 
Company,  it  became  necessary  to  engage  continuously 
in  warfare.  In  1629  the  powerful  ruler  of  the  king- 
dom of  Mataram,  the  principal  state  in  middle  Java, 
again  endeavored  to  drive  the  Dutch  merchants  out. 
Since  1625  this  ruler  had  assumed  the  title  of  Soesoe- 
hoenan  Ingalaga,  which,  literally  translated,  means 
Apostle-Prince-Generalissimo.  The  title  had  been 
bestowed  on  him  by  all  the  different  sultans,  whom 
he  had  finally  managed  to  subdue.  At  that  time  he 
was  the  undisputed  overlord  of  Java'  except  for  the 

•  His  court,  however,  remained  a  hotbed  of  intrigue.  This 
condition  was  inevitable.  Each  ruler  generally  had  four  legal 
wives,  the  number  allowed  by  the  Koran,  and  in  addition  a  number  of 
concubines.  The  sons  of  his  legal  wives  were  generally  expected 
to  be  in  the  Une  of  succession.  It  was  customary  for  the  ruler,  before 
his  death,  to  indicate  his  successor,  and,  as  soon  as  this  was  done, 
the  door  was  opened  wide  to  manipulations  and  machinations  by  the 
mothers  of  other  legal  sons,  who  desired  to  have  one  of  their  sons 
recognized  as  the  heir  to  the  throne. 

The  ruler  lived  in  sybaritic  splendor,  and  the  actual  cares  of  the 
government  fell  on  a  functionary,  who  is  designated  in  these  pages 
the  chancellor  or  prime  minister.    The  Dutch  name  is  Ryksbestuurder, 

[105] 


Sultanate  of  Bantam  and  the  small  territory  around 
Batavia  under  the  flag  of  the  Netherlands  Republic. 
With  this  extended  power,  it  is  small  wonder  that 
he  decided  to  drive  the  Hollanders  out  of  Batavia. 
One  of  his  successors,  with  the  aid  of  the  Sultan  of 
Makassar,  tried  again  in  1660  to  attack  Batavia, 
but  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful. 

The  alliance  between  Makassar  and  Mataram 
did  not  last  very  long,  however,  and  in  1675  the 
Sultan  of  Makassar  declared  war  on  the  Soesoehoenan 
of  Mataram.  At  the  same  time  one  of  the  Mataram 
nobles,  Troeno  Djojo,  raised  the  flag  of  rebellion 
against  the  Soesoehoenan.  The  latter  was  compelled 
to  beg  for  aid  from  the  governor  general  at  Batavia, 
and  the  troops  of  the  Company,  consisting  of  Hol- 
landers, and  auxiliary  native  troops,  mostly  Buginese, 
came  to  his  assistance.  Under  the  command  of 
Captain  Sloot  they  waged  war  with  great  energy 
and  cruelty,  with  the  result  that  Troeno  Djojo  was 
killed,  and  thirty  of  his  immediate  retainers  were 
beheaded.  In  order  to  show  his  gratification  the 
Soesoehoenan  bestowed  upon  the  Netherlands  East 
Indian  Company  the  long-coveted  monopoly  of  trade. 

This  was  in  1677,  and  when  in  1682  the  Sultan  of 
Bantam  was  likewise  compelled  to  bestow  the  same 


meaning  regent.  He  was  really  a  miniature  shogun.  He  had  his 
own  court,  and  his  followers  quite  often  intrigued  against  those  of 
the  ruler's  court.  In  fact,  as  an  official  the  Ryksbestuurder  was 
so  important  that  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  Company  always 
found  it  imperative  to  keep  on  good  terms  with  him. 

[106] 


right  on  the  Company  it  had  finally  accomplished  its 
purpose  as  far  as  the  island  of  Java  was  concerned, 
and  the  British,  Danish,  and  French  merchants 
moved  away.  At  the  same  time  a  great  many  of  the 
Chinese  merchants  residing  in  Bantam  were  induced 
to  change  their  places  of  operation  to  Batavia. 
Bantam  lost  forever  its  former  glory,  and  the  city  of 
Batavia  became  the  Queen  of  Insulinde. 

While  the  Company  had  been  extremely  zealous 
in  obtaining  these  long-coveted  monopoHes,  and  the 
commercial  policy  had  therefore  triumphed,  it  failed 
to  show  equal  energy  in  utilizing  and  improving  the 
acquired  benefits. 

Governor  General  Speehnan  had  never  lost  track 
of  the  Company's  aim:  "Trade  in  any  event,  and 
sole  trade  if  possible."  Hardly  had  the  sound  of 
the  drums  and  trumpets  of  the  Netherlands  troops 
died  away  when  the  commercial  agent  of  the  Com- 
pany appeared  on  the  scene,  demanding  commercial 
concessions  in  return  for  pohtical  services  rendered.^ 
Once  the  concessions  were  obtained,  it  appears  that 
the  governor  general  became  vacillating  and  procras- 
tinating. 

By  this  time  most  of  the  harbors  and  landing- 
places  had  been  provided  with  fortified  "factories." 
Instead  of  supplying  these  trading-posts  with 
abundant   merchandise,    wherewith  trade   could  be 

'  The  policy  practiced  by  the  Hollanders  of  letting  the  account- 
book  closely  follow  the  sword,  was  the  forerunner  of  the  still  more 
baneful  policy  practiced  by  other  colonizing  powers  of  letting  opium 
and  whiskey  follow  the  preaching  of  the  gospel. 

[107] 


successfully  followed,  the  Company  failed  entirely  in 
this  direction.  The  subtle  native  rulers  were  not 
slow  in  obser\ing  this.  Gratitude  for  past  favors  has 
always  been  a  weak  chain  with  which  to  hold  bene- 
ficiaries of  inferior  morality.  It  is  only  the  favors  to 
come  which  appeal  to  their  predatory  instincts  of 
rapacity  and  cunning. 

Neither  the  Soesoehoenan  nor  the  Sultan  of 
Bantam  was  an  exception  to  this  rule.  Oriental 
dupKcity  in  dealing  with  Occidentals  was  soon  given 
fuU  opportunity  of  play.  The  government  of  Batavia 
sent  an  armed  mission  to  Karta  to  remind  the  ruler 
of  ISIataram  of  his  obHgations.  The  leader  of  this 
mission,  Major  Tak,  was  traitorously  murdered  wdth 
several  of  his  Heutenants.  Strange  to  say  the  Com- 
pany failed  to  avenge  this  outrage.  Apparently  it 
feared  the  results  of  the  difficult  warfare  in  the  jungles 
of  interior  Java,  and  dreaded  a  rebeUion  in  Bantam. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  sending  an  expeditionary 
force  to  Karta,  it  brought  large  tracts  of  land  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Batavia  under  direct  rule,  for- 
bidding the  chiefs  to  consider  the  Soesoehoenan  as 
their  overlord  any  longer.  It  annexed  the  adjoining 
Preanger  Regencies  and  Cheribon  to  its  own  territory. 
As  a  result  the  Soesoehoenan  gradually  lost  his 
influence  in  that  part  of  the  island,  or  rather  his 
chancellor  and  court  nobles  did.  The  ruler  himself 
was,  as  the  Company's  resident  expressed  it,  "so 
submerged  by  his  \dces,  wives,  and  concubines" 
that  he  had  become  a  nonentity. 

[io8] 


At  that  time  (1690)  the  Company  built  a  sub- 
stantial fort  at  the  Straits  of  Banda,  and  named  it 
"Fort  Speelwyk."^ 

The  Soesoehoenan  Amangcoerat,  besides  having 
given  a  monopoly  to  the  Company,  had  also  agreed 
to  pay  a  certain  sum  as  damages  for  expenses  incurred 
in  the  war  waged  on  his  behalf.  With  Oriental  dupli- 
city he  failed  to  do  this  as  soon  as  he  considered  him- 
self sufficiently  strong  to  turn  his  back  on  his  rescuers. 

In  the  meantime  he  got  into  a  different  trouble. 
Soerapati,  a  run-away  slave,  had,  like  Spartacus,  or- 
ganized a  slave  army,  and  founded  a  state  in  the 
east  corner  of  Java.  Later  he  married  a  daughter  of 
the  Sultan  of  Balemboang,  an  adjoining  small  sultan- 
ate. Together  the  two  sultans  defied  the  overlordship 
of  the  king  of  Mataram,  as  well  as  the  monopoly 
of  the  Company.  This  brought  about  a  better  under- 
standing between  the  latter  two,  which  was  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  government  at  Batavia; 
for  the  native  rulers  of  the  states  of  Madura,  Sumbawa, 
Borneo,  and  others,  had  been  losing  much  of  their 
respect  for  and  fear  of  the  Company  since  they  had 
become  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  the  ruler  of 
Mataram  had  murdered  its  ambassadors  and  remained 
unpunished. 

'  This  fort  is  still  in  existence,  although  abandoned.  The 
masonry  work  is  still  substantial  and  intact.  It  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  it  once  stood  on  the  ocean's  edge,  for  now  several  miles 
of  fertQe  land,  covered  by  vegetation,  separate  it  from  the  water. 
Volcanic  action  and  the  sediment-loaded  waters  of  the  swift  moun- 
tain rivers  of  Java  were  the  causes. 

[109] 


A  crisis  arose  after  the  death  of  the  Soesoehoenan, 
when  his  son  Soenan  Mas,  an  enemy  of  the  Company, 
became  his  successor.  A  brother  of  the  deceased, 
Pakoe  Boewana,  a  friend  of  the  Hollanders,  requested 
the  help  of  the  Company.  This  was  granted,  and  in 
1705  the  Dutch  troops,  under  de  Wilde,  left  Sama- 
rang  where  they  had  been  concentrated,  and  shortly 
afterward,  when  they  had  defeated  the  native  troops 
at  Salatiga,  entered  Kartasura  and  placed  Pakoe 
Boewana  on  the  throne  as  Soesoehoenan  of  Java. 
The  Company,  of  course,  did  not  fail  to  harvest  the 
necessary  benefits  of  this  feat  of  arms.  Soenan  Mas 
found  a  friend  and  ally  in  the  former  slave  Soerapati, 
but  two  expeditions  put  an  end  to  their  rule.  The 
former  was  made  a  prisoner  and  banished  to  Ceylon 
and  the  latter  died  of  the  wounds  which  he  received 
in  battle. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  Company,  or  rather 
the  "Edele  Heeren"  (noble  gentlemen),  who  directed 
the  affairs  of  this  ever-growing  commercial  octopus, 
were  not  very  delicate  in  selecting  the  means  by  which 
their  enemies  were  put  out  of  the  way.  At  any  rate 
the  lives  of  these  unfortunates  generally  had  rather 
sudden  and  tragic  ends.^  A  quick  thrust  of  a  kriss 
(dagger)  in  the  hand  of  a  hireling  was  sometimes  the 
means  of  solving  the  difficulty. 

The  Company's  monopoly,  originally  a  trade  mo- 
nopoly, soon  extended  both  in  scope  and  character. 

'  See  Geschiedenis  der  Nederlanders  op  Java,  by  M.  L.  van 
Deventer,  Vol.  II,  pp.  55,  57,  and  61. 

[no] 


Before  long  the  Sultan  of  Bantam  was  obliged  to 
agree  that  all  the  produce  raised  in  his  territory, 
such  as  pepper,  indigo,  etc.,  should  be  sent  exclu- 
sively to  Batavia.  The  Soesoehoenan  of  Mataram 
was  obliged  to  give  the  same  order  to  his  chiefs.  The 
latter  agreed  in  writing,  and  under  his  seal,  that  he 
would  deliver  to  the  Company's  agents,  at  a  fixed 
price,  all  the  products  of  his  countryside  which  he 
could  force  his  subjects  to  raise  and  produce,  such 
as  cotton,  fibers,  indigo,  pepper,  hides,  sulphur,  etc. 

The  Company,  however,  was  not  satisfied  with 
the  methods  of  production.  It  introduced  from  Coro- 
mandel  indigo-makers  who  knew  the  art  of  extracting 
the  maximum  of  this  valuable  dyestuff,  and  soon 
also  imported  Cofea  Arabica  trees.  Pepper  culture, 
which  had  suffered  very  much  in  the  Sultanate  of 
Bantam  on  account  of  the  constant  civil  warfare, 
was  again  encouraged,  and  with  such  good  results 
that,  in  1710,  2,200,000  pounds  were  exported. 

The  sugar  industry  was  likewise  fostered,  espe- 
cially in  the  neighborhood  of  Batavia.  In  17 10  there 
were  130  sugar  mills  in  that  province  alone,  and  the 
manufactured  sugar  was  sold  at  a  profit  of  100  per 
cent  to  Japan  and  Persia.  The  Chinese  were  especially 
active  in  this  industry,  and  became  the  sugar  lords 
O'  Java  during  that  period. 

So  far  the  Company  had  dealt  almost  exclusively 
with  the  native  chiefs,  but  it  soon  became  apparent 
that  the  latter  did  not  pay  the  wages  due  to  the 
native   laborers,   whenever   there  was  the  slightest 

[in] 


opportunity  of  avoiding  it.  The  Company,  therefore, 
assumed  a  third  character  besides  those  of  poHtical 
overlordship  and  sole  trader.  It  now  became  private 
landlord,  either  by  direction  or  indirection,  and  from 
that  period  dates  the  ever-growing  interest  the  Com- 
pany's officials  took  in  the  native  small  farmers. 

Its  officers  encouraged  the  native  population  to 
plant  the  produce  which  it  desired  for  its  trade. 
It  still  dealt  largely  with  the  native  chiefs,  even  in 
those  regions  which  were  under  direct-  supervision 
of  the  Company,  and  through  its  younger  officials 
it  exercised  a  control  over  these  chiefs.  This  control 
was  especially  aimed  at  the  payments  made  for 
labor.  While  the  Company  endeavored  to  obtain 
the  produce  at  a  low  rate,  it  was  not  willing  to  see 
the  small  wages  which  should  have  been  paid  to  the 
farmers  and  tenants  stolen  by  the  chiefs.  This 
may  not  have  been  pure  philanthropy;  it  may  have 
been  the  coincidence  of  interests.  Whatever  the 
cause,  the  Company  soon  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  its  own  officials  must  control  this  phase  of  the 
economic  condition,  and  from  that  period  also  dates 
the  beginning  of  the  protective  guardianship  which 
the  Company  exercised  over  the  native  dessaman 
as  against  their  chiefs.  This  guardianship  was  pro- 
gressively improved  and  flourishes  today  all  through 
Insulinde. 

It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  a  reading  of  the 
annals  of  Java  during  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  is   a   very  refreshing   exercise.    Occidental 

[112] 


greed,  linked  with  the  barbarism  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  religious  bigotry  of  later  days,  was  at 
grips  with  Oriental  duplicity  and  cruelty.  The  Com- 
pany already  showed  signs  of  deterioration  within 
itself. 

No  new  governor  generals  had  been  sent  from 
the  Netherlands  for  several  years,  but  men  were 
promoted  to  this  post  who  had  spent  the  greater 
part  of  their  lives  in  the  tropics,  employed  by  the 
Company.  Their  moral  fiber  was  much  weakened. 
Unheard-of  excesses  and  dissipations  had  taken 
place  in  the  Company's  strongholds,  unnerving  the 
virile  power  of  its  servants.  Nepotism  was  rife  in  the 
mother  country  as  well  as  in  the  Indies.  Good-for- 
nothing  younger  sons,  who  were  a  disgrace  to  their 
famihes,  were  being  sent  from  the  Netherlands  to 
the  Colonies  with  strong  letters  of  recommendation, 
and  the  officials  there  were  obhged  to  give  these 
worthless  wanderers  good  berths. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  officials  in  the  Indies 
were  unceasingly  at  loggerheads  with  one  another, 
and  quarrels  and  bickerings  took  place  daily,  even 
in  the  highest  councils.  Vituperation,  plots,  and 
counterplots  were  freely  indulged  in.  A  governor 
general  coming  from  these  surroundings  could  hardly 
be  expected  to  keep  himself  above  the  currents  and 
cross-currents  of  the  local  Batavian  poHtics,  and 
consequently  was  drowned  in  the  maelstrom  of  poHti- 
cal  passions,  which  very  often  ended  in  a  political  and 
moral  cesspool. 

[113] 


The  rulers  of  Batavia  became  tainted  by  their 
Oriental  surroundings,  and  did  not  scorn  to  use  Ori- 
ental means  to  dispose  of  their  enemies.  Degenera- 
tion is  forever  the  mother  of  fear,  for  courage  can 
find  a  habitat  only  in  healthy  bodies  and  vigorous 
spirits.  Since  the  rulers  of  Batavia  had  disposed  of 
many  enemies  by  treaties,  by  conquests,  and  even 
by  the  dagger,  fear  now  entered  their  deliberations, 
fear  as  to  the  possibiHty  of  uprisings  among  the 
Chinese.  A  rough  census  taken  in  February,  1720, 
drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  there  were  about  one 
hundred  thousand  Chinese  in  Java.  A  great  many 
were  prominent  merchants  operating  businesses  in 
the  cities,  or  small  mercantile  estabhshments,  road- 
side inns,  and  the  like,  outside  of  Batavia.  Further- 
more, they  dominated  the  sugar  trade.  But  what 
was  especially  obnoxious  in  the  eyes  of  the  Company 
was  the  fact  that  the  Chinese,  in  the  outlying  posts, 
traded  in  the  very  articles  for  which  the  Company 
had  obtained  a  monopoly  from  the  native  rulers. 
It  was  next  to  impossible  to  stop  this  contraband 
trade,  and  it  continued  to  the  great  detriment  of 
the  Company's  affairs. 

Every  Chinese  junk  brought  over  a  hundred  or 
more  fresh  Chinese  to  Java,  and  the  Company, 
now  thoroughly  alarmed,  began  to  promulgate 
ordinances  for  the  purpose  of  curbing  the  anticipated 
danger.  One  of  these  ordinances  prohibited  the 
Chinese  from  operating  roadside  inns  or  warongs. 
Others  prohibited  their  roaming  at  will  over  the 

[114] 


countryside  when  out  of  work.  Those  who  had  no 
steady  employment  were  ordered  to  report  to  the 
Batavia  authorities,  and  they  were  then  deported 
to  Ceylon,  Banda,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or  to 
other  places  where  their  labor  was  required,  and  where 
they  were  practically  slaves. 

In  the  enforcement  of  these  ordinances  the 
Company  acted  with  the  greatest  barbarism.  Chinese 
tramps,  some  of  whom  were  made  tramps  by  the 
measures  introduced,  were  taken  by  the  Company's 
ofiScers  and  put  to  torture.  Very  often  they  were 
impaled  by  the  roadside,  and  left  to  die  slowly  under 
the  most  abhorrent  conditions.  Governor  General 
Valkenier  and  his  successor,  Van  Imhofif,  were  both 
guilty,  if  not  by  commission  at  least  by  omission, 
of  these  outrages  against  humanity. 

Finally  the  Chinese,  totally  exasperated,  banded 
together  and  decided  on  armed  rebellion.  The  offi- 
cials of  the  Company  continued  their  internal  bicker- 
ings, on  the  one  hand,  and  their  shameful  cruelty 
against  the  unfortunate  Chinese,  on  the  other.  As  a 
result  the  latter  arose  in  1740  and  made  a  determined 
attack  on  Batavia,  investing  the  place  and  storming 
some  of  its  forts. 

Although  the  Chinese  within  the  city  may  have 
sympathized  with  their  brethren  outside  the  gates, 
still  there  was  nothing  to  show  their  guilt.  Fear, 
however,  that  they  might  also  arise,  took  possession 
of  the  Company's  soldiers,  the  natives  and  the  scum 
which  always  congregates  in  Oriental  harbors.    They 

[115] 


marched  on  the  Chinese  quarter  of  the  city  and 
began  sacking  and  killing.  When  the  Chinese  army 
outside  again  made  a  desperate  assault  on  the  fortifi- 
cation, it  was  realized  that  a  revolt  of  the  Chinese 
quartered  within  would  sound  the  death-knell  of 
the  white  inhabitants  and  natives  alike.  The  rabble 
consequently,  aroused  to  a  frenzy,  again  attacked 
the  Chinese  Quarter.  It  must  be  admitted  to  the 
everlasting  shame  of  the  officers  in  charge  that  they 
either  encouraged  or  stood  by  when  the  most  cruel 
murders  were  committed  on  the  Chinese  inhabitants 
of  Batavia.  This  continued  from  the  ninth  of  Octo- 
ber to  the  twelfth,  and  hardly  a  Chinese  remained 
aHve  within  the  inclosure  of  the  city  Hmits.  More 
than  ten  thousand  defenseless  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren were  slain — victims  of  the  excesses  of  the  rabble 
and  of  the  weaknesses  of  a  government  divided 
against  itself. 

The  Chinese  outside  of  the  city  were  finally  beaten 
back,  but  they  now  marched  on  Kartasura,  plundering 
as  they  went,  and  soon  a  treaty  was  agreed  upon 
between  the  Chinese  mihtary  leaders  and  the  ruler 
of  Mataram,  against  the  Company.  Several  other 
sultans  and  nobles  of  Java  now  raised  the  flag  of 
rebelhon,  and  a  holy  war  was  declared  over  all 
Java  against  the  Dutch  invaders.  The  only  ally  who 
remained  true  to  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  Com- 
pany was  Tjahraningrat,  Prince  of  Madura. 

For  a  while  it  looked  as  if  the  days  of  the  Dutch 
Company  in  Insulinde  were  numbered.     Finally  the 

[ii6] 


chances  of  war  turned  in  its  favor,  and  the  enemies 
were  defeated.  The  Soesoehoenan  submitted  again 
to  Batavia,  begging  the  Company's  pardon.  To 
show  that  he  had  entirely  broken  with  the  past, 
in  a  childish  way  he  moved  his  court  from  Kartasura 
to  a  new  location,  which  he  called  Surakarta,  and 
again  he  confirmed  the  Company  in  its  extensive  trade 
rights. 

Van  Imhoff  had  succeeded  Valkenier  as  governor 
general,  and  no  matter  what  his  prior  sins  of  com- 
mission and  omission  may  have  been,  when  this 
war  ended  in  1745  he  showed  himself  to  be  a  capable 
administrator.  He  made  an  extended  trip  over  Java 
viewing  with  his  own  eyes  its  possibilities.  He 
practically  separated  Mataram  from  the  coast,  and 
abolished  all  interior  tolls,  permitting  only  tolls 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  He  started  a  remedial 
bank  at  Batavia,  founded  a  school  of  navigation,  and  a 
special  court  of  justice  for  merchants,  where  the 
Law  Merchant  should  be  applied.  He  even  went  so 
far  as  to  send  ships  directly  to  Mexico  and  CaHfornia 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  gold  and  silver  with  which 
to  relieve  the  dearth  of  ready  cash  in  the  Indies. 

He  furthermore  encouraged  the  trade,  commerce, 
and  navigation  of  the  so-called  ''free  citizens"  of 
Batavia,  that  is  those  who  were  not  connected  with 
the  Company,  although  they  still  were  required  to 
have  a  license  from  this  great  commercial  organiza- 
tion which  held  the  right  of  monopoly.  He  likewise 
regulated  the  opium  trade  by  founding  the  Amfioen 

[117I 


Society,  and  was  .the  first  governor  general  who 
brought  to  a  practical  conclusion  the  long  contem- 
plated plan  to  colonize  Java  with  Dutch  farmers. 
For  that  purpose  he  granted  concessions,  and  himself 
set  a  good  example  by  accepting  the  concession  of 
Buitenzorg,  which  he  developed  into  a  fine  landed 
estate.  Farms  of  250  acres  were  given  to  free  citizens 
of  Batavia,  and  from  1744  to  1750  many  Dutch 
peasants  were  brought  to  Java.  They  were  located 
in  the  Preanger,  especially  around  Tjipanas,  and  also 
Bandong,  which  is  now  a  thriving  city.  Horses  and 
cattle  were  imported  from  the  Netherlands. 

Van  Imhoff  did  everything  possible  to  eliminate 
the  fatal  consequences  of  the  Chinese  rebellion  and 
war.  For  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  this  he 
made  a  trip  through  the  highlands  back  of  Batavia, 
where  the  ravages  of  war  had  been  the  worst,  and 
liberally  distributed  carabaos  for  plowing,  seeds  for 
planting,  etc. 

In  the  meantime,  while  in  those  countrysides 
directly  under  the  supervision  of  the  Company 
prosperity  returned,  at  the  court  of  Mataram  the 
usual  program  of  plots,  poisoning,  murder,  rebellion, 
and  civil  wars  had  gone  on.  Whenever  one  of  the 
rulers  died,  either  from  natural  causes  or  by  violence, 
several  pretenders  to  the  throne  at  once  raised  a 
standard  of  rebelHon  against  the  rightful  heir,  and 
the  countrysides  were  devastated.  The  Company, 
to  whose  interest  it  was  to  maintain  peace  and 
thereby  make  the  raising  of  produce  possible,  had  to 

[118] 


send  troops  to  put  down  the  new  rebellion,  this  time 
fostered  by  Mas  Said,  a  new  rebel  among  the  Mata- 
ram  princes. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  Com- 
pany's troops  were  always  victorious,  for  many  a 
time  their  treacherous  allies  would  lead  them  into 
traps,  from  which  they  could  extract  themselves 
only  after  very  heavy  losses.  There  was  such  an 
occurrence  on  December  12,  1751,  when  Mas  Said 
and  his  ally  Mangkoe  Boemi  succeeded  in  practically 
annihilating  the   Company's  forces. 

Unfortunately,  just  about  that  time  the  Company 
was  drawn  into  another  internal  war  in  the  Sultanate 
of  Bantam.  As  it  had  obtained  most  of  its  pepper 
from  Bantam  and  the  Lampong  districts  in  Sumatra, 
this  supply  was  cut  off.  The  Lampong  districts  joined 
the  rebellion,  and  Batavia  was  once  more  threatened. 
New  reinforcements  arrived  from  the  Netherlands; 
dissension  among  the  native  rulers  had  again  the 
usual  consequences,  and  in  1752  the  Company  was 
once  more  victorious. 

In  1755  the  kingdom  of  Mataram  was  split  into 
two  sultanates,  which,  with  some  modifications, 
correspond  with  the  present  sultanates  of  Djokjakarta 
and  Surakarta.^ 

'  For  those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  subject  in  detail  the  follow- 
ing works  are  recommended:  P.  J.  Veth,  Java,  Geographical,  Ethno- 
logical, and  Ilislorical;  J.  Chailley  Bert,  Jave  el  scs  habitants;  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles,  History  of  Java,  London,  1820;  E.  R.  Scidmore, 
Java,  the  Garden  of  the  East,  New  York,  1898;  M.  L.  van  Deventer, 
Gcschiedenis  der  Nederlandcrs  op  Java. 

[119] 


After  several  centuries  of  arson,  strife,  and  blood- 
shed, Java  finally  came  to  rest.  Peace  reigned 
over  this  fertile  island,  even  though  it  was  a  peace 
of  exhaustion.  Although  this  peace  was  several  times 
disturbed  before  the  end  of  the  century,  still  the 
disturbances,  compared  with  the  former  wars,  were 
of  minor  importance.  Slowly  but  surely  the  country 
began  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  its  former  poHtical 
disorder,  and  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  eighteenth 
century  great  improvements  were  inaugurated. 

A  Landraad  (court  of  justice)  was  established  at 
Samarang,  and  one  at  Surabaya.  The  native  regents 
were  not  allowed  to  exercise  judiciary  powers,  except 
in  very  minor  cases.  The  more  important  cases  must 
be  brought  before  these  courts  of  justice. 

The  power  of  the  regents  was  curbed  in  other 
ways.  In  the  first  place  their  authority  was  made 
uniform,  and  no  sub-overlord  was  recognized  between 
them  and  the  Company.  A  determined  effort  was 
made  against  the  oppression  of  the  common  dessa- 
man.  This  was  extremely  difficult,  for  at  least  one- 
eighth  of  the  population  belonged  to  the  noble 
classes,  and  therefore  lived  on  their  fellowmen  with- 
out doing  any  work.  The  regents  were  prohibited 
from  entering  into  correspondence  with  other  regents. 
All  correspondence  had  to  flow  through  the  Company's 
residents,  and  combinations  for  new  rebelHon  were 
in  that  way  curbed. 

The  monentary  system  was  made  uniform,  and 
values  were  fixed.    Sugar  and  coffee  culture  was  ex- 

[120] 


tended;  and  extraordinary  care  was  taken  to  see  that 
the  wages  were  really  paid  to  the  dessamen,  and  not 
pocketed  by  the  regents  or  smaller  native  rulers. 

All  these  unifications  were  a  great  benefit  to 
the  population,  but  while  the  succeeding  governors 
general,  among  whom  were  some  men  of  high  charac- 
ter, enforced  these  improvements  among  the  natives, 
the  Company's  own  household  steadily  deteriorated. 
The  principal  reason  was  the  decline  in  the  moral 
stamina  of  the  servants.  As  they  grew  in  individual 
wealth,  many  abuses  entered  the  body  politic  of 
the  Company.  Slowly,  but  surely,  the  moral  fiber 
of  its  officials  and  employees  weakened.  Little  had 
been  done  for  tuition  or  education,  and  that  little 
which  had  been  done  ^was  generally  of  a  severely 
sectarian  nature. 

Christianity  had  made  no  headway,  for,  while 
the  Catholic  missionaries  mixed  freely  and  on  a 
common  plane  with  the  people  in  the  Philippines, 
and  while  in  early  centuries  the  Mohammedan  zeal- 
ots had  acquired  great  influence  with  the  Javanese- 
Hindu  population  by  living  among  them  and  extending 
personal  assistance,  the  reverend  Dutch  gentlemen 
of  the  stern  Reformed  Church  held  themselves  in  dig- 
nified aloofness.  Where  Christians  to  any  marked 
number  were  found,  the  credit  was  due  entirely  to  the 
Portuguese  missionaries,  both  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant. 

The  population  of  Batavia  had  gradually  dimin- 
ished.  At  the  end  of  the  century  it  had  dwindled  to 

[I2l] 


i2,ooo,  of  which  2,000  were  Christians,  700  Moham- 
medans of  foreign  origin,  and  9,000  slaves,  while 
the  balance  were  Europeans,  of  whom  the  Hollanders 
made  up  the  minority.  Hygienic  conditions  had 
become  unspeakable  in  Batavia,  as  well  as  in  the 
other  cities,  and  the  Company  lacked  strength  to 
put  its  own  household  in  order. 

In  1770  there  was  an  uprising  in  the  corner  of 
East  Java,  which,  with  the  assistance  of  other  eastern 
rulers  was  put  down  by  the  Company  in  1778.  The 
Sultan  of  Bantam  finally  and  definitely  recognized 
the  Company  as  his  overlord,  and  with  his  recognition 
went  the  suzerainty  over  the  west  coast  of  Borneo. 
Soon  after  this,  however,  the  Netherlands  power  in 
these  Colonies  became  less  and  less  vigorous,  for, 
strange  to  say,  as  the  condition  of  the  people  in 
general  constantly  improved  through  the  wise  min- 
istrations of  the  Company,  this  huge  organization 
itself  grew  weaker  and  more  inefficient.  Even  the 
directors  winked  at  the  dishonesty  of  their  employees, 
who  all  had  gone  to  the  Colonies  "to  get  rich  quick. " 
The  Company  sent  out  a  succession  of  governors 
general,  some  of  whom  were  high-minded  men  of 
irreproachable  character;  but  others  could  not  with- 
stand the  temptation  of  making  secret  profits.  Into 
the  caliber  of  the  members  of  the  Council  of  the 
Indies,  who  were  supposed  to  assist  the  governor, 
also  crept  a  gradual  degeneration.  IHicit  profits, 
the  tempter  of  so  many  government  officials,  put 
in  their  deadly  work;  and  finally  the  Netherlands 

[122] 


East  Indian  Company  fell  by  its  own  decay  from 
within,  and  the  property  was  turned  over  to  the  state. 

The  mother  country  became  involved  in  European 
wars,  and  was  forced  to  side  with  France  against 
England,  and  when  peace  was  concluded,  in  1783, 
the  Hollanders  had  to  admit  England  to  free  trade 
throughout  the  East  Indies.  This  concession  was 
considered  a  complete  defeat  in  those  times,  for  the 
notion  then  prevailed  that  the  mother  country  should 
have  a  monopoly  of  the  colonies'  trade. 

While  the  Company,  during  its  years  of  existence, 
had  done  pioneer  work  the  quality  of  which  will  be 
forever  a  monument  to  the  foresight  and  sagacity 
of  its  leaders,  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  it  was  considered  against  the  trend  of  the 
times  to  have  a  private  company  hold  sway  over 
distant  territories  as  sovereign.  In  1791,  therefore, 
a  committee  from  the  Netherlands  was  sent  to  the 
Indies  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  how  a  transfer 
could  be  made  of  all  the  rights  and  possessions  of 
the  Company,  and  when,  in  1798,  the  Batavian 
Republic  accepted  the  conclusions  of  the  committee, 
the  Company  went  out  of  existence,  the  stockholders 
receiving  only  a  very  meager  remuneration.  The 
French  revolutionary  forces  had  invaded  the  mother 
country,  and  the  Batavian  Repubhc  was  born.  A 
new  war  broke  out  with  England,  and  as  a  result 
the  Hollanders,  or,  as  they  were  then  called,  the 
Batavians,  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  colonies  in 
the  Indies  to  the  English.     By  the  treaty  of  peace 

[123] 


concluded  at  Amiens  these  colonies  were  restored  to 
the  Batavian  Republic, 

In  the  year  1800  the  Batavian  Repubhc  installed 
a  new  department  of  government  known  as  the 
Asiatic  Council.  This  Council  finally  took  full  charge 
on  behalf  of  the  state  of  all  the  affairs  of  the  colonies. 

In  1 8 10  Holland  was  forced  under  the  yoke  of 
Napoleon,  and  inasmuch  as  he  was  at  war  with 
England  and  could  not  protect  these  far-away  lands, 
they  were  once  more  lost  to  England  in  181 1. 

In  June  of  that  year  twelve  thousand  British  and 
British  Indian  troops  in  ninety  vessels,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Lord  Minto  and  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  left  the 
British  colonies  and  sailed  for  Java.  They  landed 
near  Bata\'ia,  and  in  the  ensuing  battle  four  thousand 
of  the  Dutch  soldiers  were  killed  and  five  thousand 
made  prisoners.  Java  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  British.  Lord  Minto  sailed  away,  but  left  Sir 
Raffles  behind  as  lieutenant-governor  general. 

Raffles  held  this  office  in  Java  for  four  years,  and 
his  tenure  was  beneficial,  for  he  introduced  many 
needed  improvements  in  the  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  the  islands.  He  was  succeeded  by  John 
Fendall,  who  held  office  for  a  comparatively  short 
time,  but  in  18 16,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  he 
carried  out  the  retrocession  of  the  colonies  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Netherlands.  From  that  date  until 
today,  Insulinde  has  been  an  integral  part  of  the  King- 
dom of  the  Netherlands — "Tropical  HoUand"  indeed. 

[124] 


Let  it  not  be  imagined  that,  when'  this  transfer 
of  the  property,  rights,  and  prerogatives  of  the 
Company  was  made  to  the  Batavian  RepubHc,  the 
colonies  were  a  picture  of  homogeneous  national 
existence.  To  the  contrary,  save  and  except  where 
the  Company  had  obtained  immediate  and  direct 
supervisory  powers,  the  different  rulers  and  peoples 
of  the  tribes  that  inhabited  the  archipelago  were  as 
far  from  harmonious  as  ever,  and  had  made  only 
comparatively  little  advancement  in  civilization. 

In  Java  the  old  town  of  Batavia  had  been  improved 
so  that  it  more  or  less  resembled  a  small  town  of  the 
Middle  Ages  in  Holland.  Canals  had  been  dug,  and 
a  new  city  hall  had  been  erected  (1710)  along  the 
architectural  lines  of  many  buildings  in  the  Nether- 
lands. This  is  still  a  fine  old  building  with  teak 
staircases  and  underground  dungeons.  It  is  well 
worth  visiting.  The  city  was  surrounded  by  ram- 
parts, pierced  by  great  gates.  As  the  safety  of  the 
place  had  increased,  due  to  the  control  and  direct 
supervision  of  the  Company,  the  town  had  gradually 
extended  to  take  in  several  suburban  villages  which 
had  been  newly  founded,  among  them  Weltevreden, 
built  under  the  regime  of  Governor  General  Daendels. 
These,  in  accordance  with  the  old  Dutch  ways,  were 
connected  by  a  canal,  which  is  still  in  existence. 
The  death-rate,  which  had  been  great  in  old  Batavia, 
especially  among  the  soldiers  and  sailors,  was  very 
greatly  decreased  when  the  old  fort  was  moved  to 
Weltevreden. 

[125] 


Furthermore,  under  the  direction  of  Governor 
General  Van  Imhoff  (1750),  the  summer  seat  of 
Buitenzorg  had  been  established,  where  at  present 
is  to  be  found  the  summer  palace  of  the  governor 
general  and  the  famous  botanical  gardens.  This 
place,  forty  miles  inland,  has  an  elevation  of  about 
one  thousand  feet  and  boasts  an  excellent  climate. 

By  this  time  trading-posts  and  forts  had  been  es- 
tabhshed  on  the  various  islands;  rights  had  been 
obtained  by  treaty  and  conquest;  the  cultivation 
of  crops  had  been  encouraged  wherever  and  when- 
ever it  suited  the  pohcies  of  the  Company,  but  for 
the  material  and  ethical  advancement  of  the  popula- 
tion little  had  been  done,  in  fact  as  little  as  was  being 
done  by  the  ruling  classes  all  over  Europe  for  those 
less  fortunately  situated  than  themselves,  whether  liv- 
ing at  home  or  abroad. 

When  one  compares  the  lot  of  these  natives, 
even  as  described  by  severe  critics,  with  that  of  the 
Englishmen  and  Frenchmen  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  as  Dickens  describes  it  in  his 
Tale  of  Two  Cities,  one  is  incUned  to  believe  that  the 
little  brown  brethren  fared  better  than  the  white 
man  of  the  submerged  classes  in  Europe.  This  was 
partly  due  of  course  to  the  climate  and  soil  which  made 
the  wants  of  the  people  simple  and  easily  supplied. 

But  while  there  was  order  and  progress  in  Java 
proper,  the  sultans  and  chiefs  of  the  outlying  districts 
were  still  Oriental  potentates,  disposing  of  the  life, 
death,  and  daughters  of  their  people  as  their  whims 

[126] 


dictated.  Occasionally  they  indulged  in  piracy  and 
highway  robbery;  in  fact,  these  countries  were  in 
the  same  general  stage  of  development  as  Europe 
was  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  A  very  great 
part  of  the  islands  had  never  been  explored.  The 
interior  of  Borneo  and  large  parts  of  Celebes  and 
Sumatra  were  unknown  to  the  white  man. 

A  certain  advancement  had  been  made  during 
the  Company's  rule  of  two  hundred  years.  Order 
had  been  enforced  in  a  large  portion  of  the  islands 
over  which  the  Company  held  sway,  and  considerable 
parts  of  the  population  had  been  taught  industry 
and  thrift,  where  only  Oriental  laziness  and  shif tless- 
ness  prevailed  before.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  cultivation  of  coffee  had  been 
introduced  into  Java  from  Mocha  by  the  Hollanders. 
The  first  very  small  shipment  was  made  from  Batavia 
to  Amsterdam  in  1706.  The  second  shipment,  large 
enough  to  be  sold  at  public  auction,  arrived  in 
Amsterdam  in  1711.  The  price  was  so  satisfactory 
that  the  Company  soon  extended  the  culture  by 
entering  into  contracts  with  the  native  chieftains 
for  the  growth  and  sale  of  coffee.  Soon  it  spread 
over  the  whole  of  Java,  and  later,  under  Daendels  and 
his  successors,  coffee-culture  was  introduced  in  the 
other  islands. 

In  many  ways  thrift  and  industry  had  been 
encouraged,  but  the  progress  achieved  in  the  two 
hundred  years  of  rule  was  far  outdistanced  by  the 
progress  of  the  following  century. 

[127] 


CHAPTER  VIII.  THE  EQUITABLE  TITLE 
OF  THE  MOTHER  COUNTRY  TO  HER 
COLONIES 


Netherlands  chain  of  title — Not  title  of  discovery — Claim  of 
conquest — Concessions — "World-consciences" — Credit  due  to 
Netherlands — Comparison  with  other  colonizing  powers — 
Increase  of  native  population — Land  held  for  natives — Evolu- 
tion of  natives — Ready-made  civUization  not  forced  upon 
them — Government  not  to  be  judged  by  ethical  standards  of 
today — Criticism  of  J.  W.  B.  Money — ^A.  R.  Wallace — Quota- 
tions— Cultivation  system  discussed  by  Douwes  Dekker — 
Max  Havelaar — ^Awakened  responsibility — Arthur  S.  Walcott — 
Hon.  Donald  jMacLain  Campbell 


THE  EQUITABLE  TITLE  OF  THE 
MOTHER  COUNTRY  TO  HER 
COLONIES 


N  THE  foregoing  chapter  the  chain  of  title 
which  the  Netherlands  holds  to  her  colonies 
has  been,  of  necessity,  somewhat  sketchily 
stated.  For  students  of  political  and  govern- 
ment science  who  are  attracted  to  the  subject 
of  colonial  law,  there  is  a  huge  storehouse  of  informa- 
tion to  be  found  in  the  archives  of  the  colonizing 
powers  of  the  past  and  present. 

Contrary  to  the  general  opinion  existing  in  English- 
and  Dutch-speaking  countries,  the  archives  of  Spain 
disclose  a  colonial  system  which  that  country  in- 
vented, developed,  and  applied  in  the  past,  and  which, 
for  those  times,  was  second  to  none  in  the  world. 
But,  after  all,  we  have  proved  only  the  legal  title  of 
the  Netherlands  to  her  colonies.  In  years  gone  by 
such  historical-legal  title  was  considered  all-sufl&cient. 
Generally  such  title  was  acquired  by  discovery, 
conquest,  or  treaty,  or  by  the  combination  of  two  or 
all  three  of  these.  The  foundation  of  the  Nether- 
lands title  to  the  East  Indian  Archipelago  cannot  be 
called  a  title  by  discovery,  for  the  islands  had  already 
been  "discovered "  by  European  navigators  other  than 
those  of  Dutch  nationality. 

Furthermore,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  islands 
had   been  directly  known   for  fifteen   centuries   to 

[131] 


Chinese  and  Hindu  merchants  and  navigators,  and 
indirectly  to  those  of  Alexandria,  Constantinople, 
Italy,  etc.,  for  nearly  as  long  as  this,  mostly  through 
the  products  which  found  their  way  into  Europe  by 
sea  and  caravan  routes. 

The  legal  title  is  therefore  based  partly  on  the 
claim  of  conquest — conquest  over  Portuguese,  Span- 
ish, and  English  rivals,'  and  over  the  native  rulers — 
and  partly,  though  to  no  small  degree,  upon  claims 
based  on  treaties  and  concessions  obtained  from  the 
native  rulers  by  the  East  Indian  Company, 

The  vast  majority  of  the  titles  were  really  obtained 
by  what  we  may  call  an  international  "trespass, 
vi  et  armis, "  a  procedure  which  speaks  more  favorably 
for  the  energy  and  foresight  of  our  forefathers  than 
for  their  high  moral  conception  of  international 
equity.  But  the  age  when  a  super-race  was  allowed 
to  prove  its  superiority  by  force  and  feat  of  arms  alone 
is  rapidly  passing  out,  if  it  has  not  already  done  so. 
Even  formerly  acquired  titles  are  bound,  in  years  to 
come,  to  be  closely  examined  and  scrutinized,  not  only 
by  the  people  and  races  most  directly  affected,  but  also 
by  a  "world-conscience,"  ever  growing  in  strength, 
which  will  demand  an  equitable  title  as  weU  as  a 
legal  one. 

'  A  great  many  armed  English  adventurers  early  appeared  in 
and  around  Java.  The  history  of  the  rivalry  between  the  English 
and  Dutch  in  the  Moluccas  and  other  parts  of  Insulinde,  which  lasted 
for  more  than  a  century,  is  not  very  edifying.  Bad  faith,  cruelty, 
and  treachery  are  repeatedly  charged  on  both  sides,  and  probably 
justly  so. 

[132] 


Neither  this  world-conscience  nor  the  races 
affected  will  countenance  the  exploitation  of  a  weaker 
nation  by  a  stronger  one,  but  will  demand  with 
increasing  insistence  the  recognition  of  the  principle: 
with  great  rights  great  obHgations  are  inseparably 
interwoven.  In  other  words,  the  enHghtened  opinion 
of  the  Western  World  demands  that  assistance  be 
given  to  the  economical,  industrial,  political,  and 
ethical  evolution  of  the  subject-race.  Historical  titles 
will  be  subjected  to  the  acid  test  of  modern  moral 
requirements  for  governments. 

The  history  of  the  government  of  the  different 
races  and  tribes  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago  by 
the  Netherlands  contains  several  elements  which  stand 
forth  to  her  everlasting  credit.  Foremost  among 
these  is  the  fact  that  neither  the  civilized,  half- 
civilized,  nor  savage  races  and  tribes  have  been  exter- 
minated, or  even  diminished  in  population.  On  the 
contrary,  the  population  has  steadily  increased  in 
numbers,  and  the  evolution  toward  better  conditions 
has  been  as  steady  and  as  uninterrupted  as  conditions 
would  reasonably  allow. 

While  the  history  of  the  contact  of  the  white  man 
with  the  red,  yellow,  or  brown  man  is  generally  the 
history  of  a  tragedy,  while  the  children  of  the  soil,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  have  been  deprived  of  their 
patrimony,  and  have  been  driven  from  the  homes  and 
hunting-places  of  their  fathers,  or  have  suffered 
terribly  from  certain  fruits  of  civilization,  thrust  on 
them  by  the  white  men,  such  as  whiskey,  gin,  opium, 

[133] 


consumption,  and  venereal  diseases,  no  such  blot  rests 
on  the  escutcheon  of  the  Netherlands.  Truly,  in 
these  islands,  the  white  man's  empire  was  not  built 
by  the  tears  and  blood  of  the  children  of  the  soil. 

A  second  element  which  sheds  almost  equal  luster 
on  this  colonial  policy  is  the  fact  that  the  natives 
have  not  been  deprived  of  the  title  to  the  land.  The 
fact  is,  a  great  part  of  the  land  is  owned  by  the  natives 
in  fee  simple  absolute.  Other  parts  are  owned  by 
them  in  community,  or  otherwise  under  the  different 
laws  of  their  own  land  tenure,  while  the  so-called 
government  lands — lands  which  formerly  made  part 
of  the  wilderness  and  which  may  be  compared  with 
the  public  domain  of  the  United  States — are  leased 
to  the  white  men  under  strict  governmental  regula- 
tions. Comparatively  few  European  estates,  formerly 
acquired,  can  be  conveyed  in  fee  simple  by  grantor  to 
grantee.^  The  preservation  of  the  soil  for  the  natives 
is  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  this  colonial  policy.  The 
agricultural  advancement  of  the  country  is,  moreover, 
assured  by  long  lease  contracts,  made  by  the  govern- 
ment, of  such  lands  as  are  not  needed  by  the  natives 
for  agricultural  or  grazing  purposes.^ 

As  a  third  element,  which  is  eloquent  of  the  wisdom 
of  the  government,  we  may  mention  the  fact  that 
they  have  not  endeavored  to  force  on  an  Oriental 
country  a  ready-made  Western  civilization,  largely,  if 
not  wholly,  unfit  for  any  Oriental  people.     It  was 

'  J.  M.  Brown,  The  Dutch  East  Indies,  p.  102. 

^  Official  Yearbook  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  IQ20,  p.  255. 

[134] 


never  forgotten  that  a  civilization  which  took  centu- 
ries to  evolve,  and  for  which  the  white  man  bled  on  a 
thousand  battle  fields,  could  not  be  fitted  like  a 
ready-to-wear  garment  to  Oriental  conditions.  The 
Dutch,  with  that  tolerance  for  which  they  have  been 
famous  throughout  the  ages,  allowed  these  peoples 
to  follow  the  necessary  progress  of  evolution,  along 
their  own  lines,  often  assisting  and  accelerating  the 
progress,  and  guiding  it  along  wise  channels,  but  not 
trying  to  force  their  own  civilization  on  a  people  whom 
it  would  very  likely  make  most  unhappy. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  it  is  not  claimed  that  in 
the  past  no  injustices  have  been  practiced  which 
affected  one  or  more  individuals,  sometimes  a  whole 
village.  Nor  is  it  claimed  that  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  when  much  horrifying 
brutality,  both  by  the  governors  and  the  governed, 
was  displayed  in  Europe,  no  brutality  was  exercised 
in  equal  degree  in  the  Indies.  How  could  it  be 
different  during  an  age  when  more  than  one  hundred 
criminal  offenses  met  with  capital  punishment  in  Old 
England,  when  witches  were  burned  in  Salem,  when 
torturing  was  the  legalized  method  of  extracting 
incriminating  evidence  from  guilty  and  innocent 
alike?  The  times  were  brutal,  so  were  the  people, 
and  so  was  the  law.  One  would  be  very  credulous  to 
believe  that  the  Hollanders  in  the  Indies  were  an 
exception  to  this  rule. 

But  it  is  claimed  that  at  those  times,  harsh  as  the 
white  man's  government  may  have  been  there,  in 

[i3Sl 


fact  harsh  as  it  was  at  home,  it  was  far  more  humane 
than  the  government  which  was  given  Eastern  people 
by  their  own  satraps  and  princes.  It  is  further 
claimed,  without  fear  of  successful  contradiction, 
that  through  all  these  ages  the  government  as  a  whole 
was  and  now  is  as  good,  if  not  a  better  government, 
than  that  of  any  nation  exercising  an  overlordship 
over  colonies. 

When  judging  such  government,  which  extends 
over  several  centuries,  one  must  judge  in  the  light  of 
the  particular  period.  One  cannot  judge  the  govern- 
ment administered  by  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Com- 
pany in  Java  in  1650,  by  the  ethical  standards  which 
prevail  in  the  modern  Western  World  of  1921,  any 
more  than  one  can  judge  the  narrow,  bigoted  opinions 
of  the  immediate  descendants  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  by 
the  ethical  standards  now  prevailing  in  these  United 
States.  But  one  can  demand  that  the  government 
be  humane  and  enlightened,  viewed  from  the  height 
which  civilization  had  reached  at  the  time  in  question. 
Today  the  Netherlands  government,  though  far  from 
perfect,  is  well  abreast  of  the  times.  Military  horrors, 
such  as  those  that  have  been  committed  within  the 
last  two  years  by  the  servants  of  two  other  colonizing 
powers  on  unresisting  civilians,  would  be  unthinkable 
in  colonies  over  which  the  Dutch  flag  flies. 

What  then  was  the  character  of  the  Netherlands 
colonial  government  in  the  past  ?  Disinterested  tes- 
timony is  always  considered,  in  every  modern  court 
of  justice,  the  most  desirable,  the  least  impeachable 

[136] 


e\'idence.  It  may,  therefore,  be  well  to  ascertain 
what  testimony  has  been  given  by  well-known  observ- 
ers and  authors  of  a  nationality  other  than  Dutch, 
who  visited  the  colonies. 

Mr.  J.  W.  B.  Money,  the  English  barrister  of 
Calcutta,  who  visited  the  colonies  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  last  century,  in  his  book,  Java  and  How  to 
Manage  a  Colony,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  ''the 
Dutch  system  is  the  very  best  that  can  be  adopted 
when  a  European  nation  conquers  or  otherwise 
acquires  possession  of  a  country  inhabited  by  an  in- 
dustrious but  semi-barbarous  people." 

The  famous  English  naturalist,  Alfred  Russell 
Wallace,  in  his  book,  The  Malay  Archipelago,  a  book 
which  was  dedicated  to  Charles  Darwin  and  has  seen 
a  great  number  of  editions,  wrote,  after  spending  the 
years  1861  and  1862  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
principally  in  Java,  Borneo,  and  Celebes: 

I  must  heartily  concur  in  Money's  conclusions.  In  my 
account  of  northern  Celebes  I  shall  show  how  successfully  the 
same  system  has  been  applied  to  people  in  a  very  different 
state  of  civihzation  from  the  Javanese.* 

After  carefully  reviewing  the  whole  situation, 
Wallace  comes  to  this  conclusion: 

It  is  universally  admitted  that,  when  a  country  increases 
rapidly  in  population,  the  people  cannot  be  oppressed  or 
badly  governed.  In  1826  the  population  by  census  in  Java 
was  5,500,000,  while  in  1800  it  was  estimated  at  3,500,000. 
In  1850  the  population  had  increased  to  9,500,000,  or  an 
increase  of  73  per  cent  in  twenty-four  years.    In  1865  it 

*  See  Wallace,  tenth  edition,  pp.  73  ff. 
[137] 


amounted  to  14,168,416,  an  increase  of  nearly  50  per  cent  in 
fifteen  years,  a  rate  which  would  double  the  population  in 
about  twenty-six  years. 

Had  Wallace  lived  long  enough  he  could  have 
stated  that  this  population  had  increased  in  1879  to 
nineteen  million,  in  1894  to  twenty-five  million,  and 
in  1917  to  34,157,383.^ 

Speaking  of  Celebes,  he  says: 

In  moral  and  mental  character,  the  inhabitants  of  Mina- 
hassa  (as  this  part  of  Celebes  is  called)  are  remarkably  kind 
and  gentle,  submissive  to  those  they  consider  their  superiors 
and  ready  to  adopt  the  habits  of  civilized  people. 

Up  to  a  very  recent  period,  these  people  were  thoroughly 
savage,  and  there  are  persons  now  left  in  Menado  Quly,  1857), 
who  remember  a  state  of  things  identical  with  that  described 
of  savages  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  several  villages  were  distinct 
tribes,  each  under  its  own  chief,  speaking  languages  unintelli- 
gible to  one  another,  and  almost  always  at  war.  They  built 
their  houses  elevated  on  lofty  posts,  to  defend  themselves 
from  the  attacks  of  their  enemies.  They  were  head  hunters 
like  the  Dayaks  of  Borneo,  and  were  sometimes  said  to  be 
cannibals.  Human  skuUs  were  the  great  ornaments  of  the 
chief,  strips  of  bark  were  their  only  dress.  The  country  was 
partly  wilderness,  and  the  rehgion  was  that  naturally  engen- 
dered in  the  undeveloped  human  mind  by  the  contemplation 
of  grand  natural  phenomena.  They  held  wild  and  exciting 
festivals  to  propitiate  their  deities  and  demons.  Here  we  have 
a  picture  of  thorough  savages,  with  no  desire  for  physical 
amelioration,  and  no  prospect  of  moral  advancement. 

Such  was  their  condition  in  the  year  1822,  when  the  coffee 
plant  was  first  introduced  and  experiments  were  made  as  to 
its  cvdtivation. 

'  See  Official  Yearbook  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  IQ20. 
[138] 


After  a  time  roads  were  made  from  the  port  of  Menado 
up  to  the  plateau,  and  smaller  paths  were  cleared  from  village  to 
village.  Missionaries  settled  in  the  more  populated  districts 
and  opened  schools.  The  country  was  divided  into  districts, 
and  the  system  of  controllers,  which  had  worked  so  well  in 
Java,  was  introduced.  Disputes  arising  between  adjacent 
villages  were  now  settled  by  appeal  to  superior  authorities. 
The  old  and  semi-fortified  houses  were  disused,  and  under  the 
direction  of  controllers,  most  of  the  houses  were  rebuilt  on  a 
neat  and  uniform  plan.^ 

Speaking  of  the  cultivation  system,  Wallace 
remarks : 

The  system  introduced  by  the  Dutch  was  to  induce  the 
people,  through  their  chiefs,  to  give  a  portion  of  their  time  to 
the  cultivation  of  coffee,  sugar,  and  other  valuable  products  at 
a  fixed  rate  of  wages,  low  indeed,  but  about  equal  to  that 
paid  in  other  parts  of  the  world  to  laborers  engaged  in  clearing 
ground  for  plantations.  Under  the  government  supervision 
the  produce  is  sold  to  the  people  at  a  low  fixed  price.  Out 
of  the  proceeds  netted,  a  percentage  goes  to  the  chiefs,  and  the 
remainder  is  divided  among  the  workmen.  This  surplus  in 
good  years  is  sometimes  considerable. 

On  the  whole  the  people  are  well  fed  and  decently  clothed, 
and  have  acquired  habits  of  steady  industry  and  the  habit  of 
scientific  cultivation,  which  will  be  of  service  to  them  in  the 
future. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  government  expended 
capital  for  years  before  any  return  was  obtained  and  if  they 
derive  a  large  revenue  it  is  now  in  a  way  which  is  far  less 
burdensome  and  far  more  beneficial  to  the  people  than  any 
tax  that  could  be  levied.  But  although  the  system  may  be 
as  well  adapted  to  the  development  of  agriculture  and  industries 
in  a  half  civilized  people  as  it  is  to  the  material  advantage  of  the 

'  See  Wallace,  pp.  192-93. 

[139] 


governing  country,  it  is  not  pretended  that  in  practice  it  is 
perfectly  carried  out. 

The  servile  and  oppressive  relations  between  the  chiefs 
and  people,  which  have  existed  for  perhaps  a  thousand  years, 
cannot  at  once  be  abolished,  and  some  evil  must  result  from 
these  relations,  until  the  spirit  of  education  causes  it  naturally 
and  insensibly  to  disappear. 

Even  if  there  is  some  oppression,  the  results  are  not  nearly 
so  bad  as  the  oppression  caused  by  free  trade  of  the  indigo 
planters,  or  the  torturing  by  native  tax-gatherers  under  the 
British  rule  in  India,  a  condition  with  which  the  readers  of 
EngUsh  newspapers  were  famUiar  a  few  years  ago. 

It  may  appear  strange,  but  the  most  savage  critic 
of  this  cultivation  system,  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century,  was  a  former  assistant  resident,  Mr. 
Douwes  Dekker,  who  had  been  discharged  from  the 
service  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  government. 
He  wrote  the  famous  book,  Max  Havelaar,  or  The 
Coffee  Auctions  of  the  Dutch  Trading  Society.  This 
book,  translated  into  English,  and  several  other 
languages,  caused  a  sensation.  But  even  this  virulent 
critic  did  not  charge  oppression  to  the  Dutch  officials. 
On  the  contrary,  he  attacks  them  with  bitter  abuse 
and  sarcasm,  because  in  his  opinion  they  are  not  suf- 
ficiently active  to  protect  the  native  population  from 
the  oppression  exercised  by  their  own  nobles  and  former 
rulers. 

For  centuries  the  Dutch  government  had  followed 
a  system  of  conciliation,  as  explained  in  a  former 
chapter.  The  servile  attitude  observed  by  Wallace 
{Max  Havelaar  appeared  in  print  only^  a  short  while 

[140] 


before  the  arrival  of  Wallace  in  the  Indies)  was 
imbedded  in  the  very  consciousness  of  the  IMalay 
people.  The  government  realized  that  the  native 
chiefs  had  a  power  to  incite  their  followers  to  rebellion 
against  the  very  people  who  were  endeavoring  to 
ameliorate  their  conditions.  They  therefore  pro- 
ceeded cautiously  and  prudently,  insisting  on  such 
improvements  as  the  increased  advancement  of 
civilization  and  the  consequent  feeling  of  liberty  of 
the  individuals  would  justify. 

Douwes  Dekker,  however,  impatient  of  any  re- 
straint, burned  with  indignation  at  the  subservient 
attitude  of  the  natives,  as  well  as  at  the  grasping 
proclivities  of  their  chieftains,  and  desired  to  force 
improvements  whether  they  would  wreck  the  Ship  of 
State  or  not.  It  cannot  be  said  that  his  work  was  in 
vain,  for  it  once  more  aroused  public  opinion  in  the 
Netherlands  to  the  great  obligations  which  the 
government  and  its  officials  owed  to  these  vast 
numbers  of  natives,  whom  historical  fate  had  placed 
in  their  keeping,  and  today  it  is  generally  recognized 
that,  destructive  as  the  criticism  of  Douwes  Dekker 
may  have  been  at  the  time  it  was  rendered,  the 
mellowing  influence  of  time  has  made  it  in  many 
instances  a  constructive  criticism. 

But  to  return  to  the  opinion  of  foreign  observers. 
The  American  traveler,  Arthur  S.  Walcott,^  realizes 
the  tremendous  difficulties  under  which  the  colonial 
government  is  laboring,   and   does   not   hesitate  to 

'  See  Java  and  Her  Neiglibors,  1914. 
[141] 


criticize  the  Dutch  colonial  government  whenever  he 
deems  it  necessary. 

Of  the  Malays  in  general  he  says: 

Of  the  personal  characteristics  of  the  Malays  of  Menangka- 
bau,  as  in  fact  of  all  Malays  wherever  found,  there  is  little 
good  to  be  said.  They  are  brave  after  the  manner  of  fanatics, 
but  vicious  and  underhanded,  hard-working  through  necessity 
rather  than  choice,  and  with  no  ambition  as  a  rule  to  add  to 
their  fund  of  knowledge,  or  to  improve  their  characters. 
Beyond  the  necessities  and  the  simplest  creature  comforts,  there 
is  nothing  with  which  the  Malay  is  famUiar  to  tempt  him  to 
extraordinary  exertions  or  to  caU  forth  his  best  abilities.' 

Again,  speaking  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island 
of  Nias,  the  largest  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Sumatra,  he  states: 

It  is  inhabited  by  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  natives  of 
a  low  grade  of  inteUigence,  for  the  most  part  fishermen  or  agri- 
culturists, who  worship  the  phallic  emblem  and  various  hideous 
household  gods,  and  hve  in  constant  fear  of  evil  spirits.  In  the 
interior  districts  they  are  said,  even  at  the  present  day,  to 
bury  their  chiefs  with  rites  involving  human  sacrifice,  to 
kill  twins,  to  be  afraid  of  albinos,  and  to  adorn  family  habita- 
tions with  the  skulls  of  their  enemies.  They  are  filthy  in 
personal  habits.^ 

Speaking  of  the  Achinese,  with  whom  the  Nether- 
lands colonial  government  has  so  much  trouble,  this 
writer  says : 

The  inhabitants  of  this  northern  end  of  Sumatra  are  prob- 
ably the  worst  of  all  the  natives  of  the  islands  in  Insulinde, 
with  the  exception  of  the  savages  of  New  Guinea  and  other 
absolutely  untutored,  uncivilized,  wild  men.    In  these  Achinese 

'  See  Java  and  Her  Neighbors,  1914,  p.  327.         =  Ibid.,  p.  331. 

[142] 


every   oriental   vice   seems   abnormally   overdeveloped,   and 

every  occidental  virtue  conspicuously  lacking Those  in 

the  best  position  to  judge  are  practically  unanimous  in  char- 
acterizing the  highland  Achinese  as  unscrupulous,  fanatic, 
warlike  brigands,  and  those  of  the  coast  as  vicious,  servile, 
treacherous  thieves.' 

Of  the  half-breed  Portuguese  natives,  found  in 
the  Moluccas,  Walcott  writes: 

These  half  castes  are,  curiously  enough,  darker  as  a  rule 
than  the  natives  of  full  blood.  They  scorn  the  native  costume 
and  go  about  in  black  clothes  of  quasi-European  cut.  On 
festival  occasions  they  blossom  out  in  swallow-tails  or  frock- 
coats  and  high  hats  of  ancient  v-intage.  These  people  are 
Christians  and  Protestants,  and  they  seem  to  have  the  usual 
vices  of  native  Christians,  drunkenness  in  particular.  They 
are  also  lazy,  bumptious,  and  inquisitive,  like  most  natives 
who  have  been  taught  that  all  men  are  equal  and  brothers. 
The  Mahometans  impressed  us  as  a  far  more  worthy  and  less 
hypocritical  lot,  and  more  satisfactory  to  deal  with.' 

In  the  last  two  pages  of  his  work  (pp.  338-39) 
he  writes: 

Our  wanderings  in  the  Insulinde  were  aU  over  too  soon.  In 
fifteen  weeks  of  travel  in  the  Dutch  possessions  we  met  with  un- 
failing courtesy  and  kindness  at  the  hands  of  all  the  Hollanders 
with  whom  we  came  in  contact  by  chance  or  introduction, 
and  in  their  wonderful  island  colony  we  enjoyed  a  succes- 
sion of  dehghtful  surprises  and  pleasurable  experiences  such 
as  I  hardly  think  could  be  duplicated  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  I  know  of  no  other  regions  of  more  lovely  and  more 
varied  scenery,  and  of  no  lands  where  so  much  that  is  strange 
and  unusual  may  be  seen  at  so  little  risk  and  with  so  little 
discomfort. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  336.  '  Ibid.,  p.  169. 

[143] 


The  Honorable  Donald  MacLain  Campbell,  in  his 
famous  book,  Java,  writes  most  sympathetically  about 
the  colonial  government.  He  lived  for  twenty- three 
years  in  Java,  where  besides  being  a  merchant  he  was 
British  Vice-Consul.     He  writes: 

The  final  and  signal  success  with  which  the  Dutch  have 
managed  and  administered  these  colonies  which  fell  to  them 
is  to  the  credit  of  that  great  nation,  with  its  glorious  past  in 
Europe. 

All  foreign  observers  seem  to  agree  that  the 
difficulties  which  the  Netherlands  administration  had 
to  overcome  were  prodigious,  largely  due  to  the  poly- 
glot and  shiftless  nature  of  Insulinde's  population. 
But  why  continue  quoting  these  foreign  observers? 
For  while  such  quotations  which  could  be  multiplied 
almost  indefinitely  may  prove  conclusively  that  the 
mother  country  had  a  good  equitable  title  to  its 
colonies  at  the  time  these  observers  sojourned  in 
Insulinde,  such  title  must  be  progressively  strength- 
ened or  it  deteriorates. 

In  the  following  chapters  of  this  essay  proof  will 
be  found  that  the  moral  title  of  the  Netherlands  to 
Insulinde,  is  today  even  greater  than  it  was  in  years 
gone  by,  and  that  it  promises  to  become  continuously 
stronger. 


[144] 


CHAPTER  IX.    INSULINDE  IN  THE  NINE- 
TEENTH  CENTURY 


Treaty  of  Vienna — Europe  after  the  Napoleonic  wars — Nether- 
lands' specific  ills — 'RebeUion  in  1830 — Separation  in  1830  of 
northern  and  southern  provinces — King  refuses  separation 
until  1838 — Money  for  wars  expected  to  come  from  colonies — • 
Insulinde's  unsound  condition — Raffles  abolished  forced  labor; 
introduced  reasonable  land  rents — Body  politic  ill — 'Daendels 
tried  to  make  colonies  pay — Sultan  of  Bantam  removed  from 
throne — Sultan  of  Djokjakarta  also  banished — 'Road  built 
across  Java — Dutch  troops  suffered  defeat  by  English — ■ 
Guerilla  war  with  natives — Depo  Negoro  raised  Islam  standard 
— Captured  by  General  de  Koch — Forced  cultivation  intro- 
duced— Increased  wealth — System  defended  by  Money  and 
Wallace — Condemned  by  Douwes  Dekker — Reasons  for 
introduction — State  supreme  sovereign — Natives  to  plant 
one-fifth  of  land  for  government — Governor  van  den  Bosch — ■ 
Abuse  of  system — Suffering  of  natives — ^System  aboUshed 
1870 — Expansion  of  private  enterprise — War  of  Atjeh — 
Overlordship  of  Netherlands — Expeditions  into  outlying 
possessions — Colonial  administration  second  to  none 


INSULINDE  IN  THE  NINETEENTH 
CENTURY 

FTER  the  Treaty  of  Vienna  and  the  with- 
drawal of  the  British  officials,  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands  was  in  undisputed  posses- 
sion of  the  archipelago,  wdth  the  exception 
of  a  few  minor  British  claims.  That  is,  in 
undisputed  possession  as  far  as  other  colonizing 
powers  were  concerned.  Several  of  the  native  sultans 
considered  themselves,  especially  in  the  islands  other 
than  Java  and  Madura,  vassals  of  the  Netherlands  in 
name  only,  if  at  all. 

Very  much,  therefore,  had  yet  to  be  accomplished 
before  the  authority  of  the  mother  country  could 
be  considered  consolidated  throughout  her  colonies. 
And  in  the  meantime  Europe  was  sick,  very  sick 
indeed,  in  fact  almost  as  ill  as  she  is  at  the  present 
time.^  The  great  Napoleonic  wars,  with  all  their 
waste  of  human  blood  and  national  resources,  had 
only  just  come  to  a  close.  Europe  had  gone  through 
a  welter  of  misery  for  thirty  years,  though  it  may  be 
stated  again  that  in  these  thirty  years  no  such  damage 
had  been  done,  no  such  ruin  had  been  accomplished, 
as  in  the  four  years  of  the  Great  War.  Neither  were 
the  consequences  so  dire,  so  widespread. 

Europe  was  financially  and  morally  bankrupt  for 
the  time  being.     The  old  school  of  diplomacy  was 
again  at  its  former  tricks,  jockeying  for  position, 
'  The  year  1921. 

[147] 


r 


disregarding  former  friends  and  foes  alike,  and  taking 
advantage  of  all. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  besides  suffering 
from  the  general  ills  of  Europe,  had  specific  troubles 
of  its  own.  After  centuries  of  a  republican  form  of 
government  it  had  become  a  constitutional  monarchy. 
The  southern  provinces  (the  present  kingdom  of 
Belgium),  long  under  the  domain  first  of  Spain  and 
afterward  of  Austria,  had  been  joined  to  the  domain  of 
the  former  Republic  of  the  Seven  United  Netherlands. 
It  was  an  unfortunate  endeavor  to  blend  two  races, 
which  were  radically  different,  into  one  harmonious 
whole.  It  could  bring  only  dissatisfaction  and  unhap- 
piness  to  both.  The  people  of  the  northern  provinces 
were  for  the  most  part  ardent  Protestants,  while  the 
majority  of  the  people  of  the  southern  provinces  were 
devout  Catholics.  The  northerners  had  an  ingrained 
feeling  for  political  and  personal  liberty;  the  south- 
erners had  held  quite  different  views  for  several 
centuries. 

A  combination  of  the  two  countries  could  not  be 
permanent,  and  before  long  mutterings  were  heard, 
especially  in  the  south,  asking  for  a  separation. 
Finally  in  1830  an  open  rebellion  broke  out.  Belgium 
called  in  the  assistance  of  the  French  king.  A  French 
army  invaded  the  southern  Netherlands  and  in  a 
pitched  battle  at  Brussels  the  Netherlands  troups 
were  defeated.  They  retreated  to  Antwerp,  which 
was  soon  invaded  by  the  French  and  Belgium  troops. 
It  was  here  that  Van  Speyk,  in  command  of  a  Dutch 

[148] 


man-o'-war.  blew  up  his  ship  with  all  on  board  rather 
than  surrender.  The  Netherlands  commander  at 
Antwerp  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  in  1832  the 
separation  was  completed  of  two  countries  which 
should  never  have  been  united.  But  William,  King 
of  the  Netherlands,  was  stubborn,  and  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  accomplished  fact,  with  the  result 
that  the  Netherlands  maintained  for  a  long  time  an 
unnecessary  and  expensive  standing  army.  At  last, 
in  1838,  the  separation  was  officially  accepted  by  the 
king's  government,  and  the  incident  was  finally 
closed. 

All  this  had  a  direct  bearing  on  the  course  pursued 
by  the  mother  country  in  the  colonies.  The  Home 
Government  needed  money  badly,  mostly  on  account 
of  its  vast  military  expenses,  and  of  course  looked 
toward  the  colonies  to  supply  this,  for  that  was 
generally  presumed  to  be  the  sacred  duty  of  colonies 
and  possessions  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

While  Europe  was  sick,  Insulinde  could  by  no 
means  be  said  to  enjoy  a  healthy  economic  or  political 
life.  It  is  true  that  atrocities  like  those  committed 
during  the  preceding  two  centuries,  either  by  the 
natives  on  the  Hollanders,  or  by  the  Hollanders  on 
the  English,  natives  on  Chinese,  or  by  the  Chinese  on 
the  natives,  or  by  whomsoever  had  the  opportunity, 
were  things  of  the  past.  For  instance,  at  Amboina 
the  British  East  Indian  Company  had  five  factories 
for  the  collection  of  spices.     In   1622   the  English 

[149I 


governor  was  one  Gabriel  Towerson  who  married  a 
native  woman  of  noble  birth.  He  had  under  him 
several  Englishmen  and  Japanese  soldiers.  All  were 
accused  of  plotting  against  the  Netherlands  East 
Indian  Company,  which  likewise  had  a  fort  and 
factory  at  Amboina.  While  no  doubt  the  Hollanders 
believed  that  the  English  intended  to  give  the  warlike 
natives  an  opportunity  to  kill  them,  with  all  the 
horrors  connected  therewith,  history  seems  to  make 
the  presumed  guilt  of  the  English  very  doubtful. 
They  were  tortured  in  the  Dutch  fort  with  the  greatest 
barbarity  and  ingenuity,  until  they  "confessed," 
presumably  to  escape  further  torture. 

Again,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
there  was  an  uprising  among  the  Chinese  inhabitants 
of  Java,  who  lived  there  in  great  numbers.  The  latter 
had  been  treated  badly  by  Dutch  and  natives  alike. 
They  marched  to  Kartasura,  in  central  Java,  and 
surprised  the  emporer  in  his  kraton  or  capitol.  After 
committing  all  kinds  of  barbarisms,  the  Chinese 
further  outraged  all  the  princesses  of  the  court  and 
other  women,  and  indulged  in  dreadful  orgies. 

In  1812,  when  Insulinde  was  temporarily  under 
English  rule,  the  conditions  in  Sumatra  were  not 
very  much  improved.  It  appeared  that  the  sultan's 
son,  Pangeran  Ratu,  was  a  moral  degenerate,  whose 
bestiality,  cruelty,  and  criminality  were  notorious. 
The  Dutch  resident  who  was  still  stationed  at  Palem- 
bang  endeavored  to  put  a  stop  to  his  carnival  of  crime. 
In   revenge   for   the   "insult"   offered   his  precious 

[150] 


offspring,  the  sultan  surprised  the  factory  or  fort, 
treacherously  coming  under  guise  of  offering  friend- 
ship. The  small  garrison  was  captured,  placed  on 
native  rowboats,  and  taken  to  Soosang,  where  every 
one  was  slowly  put  to  death  after  almost  unbelievable 
cruelties.  The  resident's  wife,  who  was  pregnant,  was 
thrown  into  the  jungle  to  wild  beasts;  all  the  other 
white  women  were  outraged  and  sold  with  their 
children  as  slaves.  They  were  finally  rescued  by 
Colonel  Gillespie  of  the  British  Expeditionary  Force, 
who  treated  them  with  the  greatest  kindness. 

Instances  like  these  could  be  multiplied. 

Today,  one  can  motor  in  safety  all  around 
Palembang,  in  fact  all  over  Sumatra.  The  govern- 
ment has  built  and  maintains  magnificent  auto  roads, 
and  armed  poHce  and  civil  servants  are  everywhere. 
Verily  the  Netherlands  have  built  up  a  wonderful 
empire  in  Insulinde,  especially  wonderful  when  one 
considers  conditions  as  indicated  above. 

It  is  likewise  true  that  Sir  Thomas  Stamford 
Raffles  introduced  many  improvements."  For  in- 
stance, he  aboHshed  the  forced  delivery  of  produce 
in  natura,  the  right  to  exact  labor  to  be  furnished  by 
the  native  princes  in  lieu  of  taxes,  or  at  a  nominal 
compensation;  also  the  tolls  and  imports  which  had 
benefited  neither  Hollanders  nor  natives,  but  mostly 

'  The  Honorable  Donald  MacLain  Campbell,  once  British  vice- 
consul  in  Java,  author  of  Java,  Past  and  Present  (London,  William 
Heineman),  calls  this  great  Britisher  most  justly  "a  great  states- 
man, empire-maker,  administrator,  and  naturalist,  and  founder  of 
the  colony  and  city  of  Singapore." 

[iSi] 


the  Chinese,  many  of  whom  already  had  swollen 
fortunes.  He  also  introduced  a  system  of  land  rent 
that  was  very  reasonable,  considering  that  the  feudal 
system  was  still  followed  in  the  Orient. 

But  the  body  politic  in  Java  and  the  outlying 
possessions  was  still  very  ill. 

The  famous  and  infamous  Marshall  Daendels,  who 
was  appointed  governor  general  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  in  1807,  had  pointed  out  a  way  to  rule  a 
colony,  make  it  pay,  and  consolidate  the  government. 
He  succeeded  in  constructing,  at  huge  expense  of 
treasure  and  human  life,  a  great  highway  across  Java, 
thereby  reducing  the  journey  from  one  end  of  the 
island  to  the  other  from  forty  to  six  days.  The  road 
begins  near  the  village  of  Anjer,  on  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  one  of  the  most  westerly  points  of  the  island, 
and  then  runs  to  Banjuwangi,  which  is  situated  on 
the  southeastern  end,  right  opposite  the  island  of  Bali, 
At  that  time  it  was  one  of  the  great  highways  of 
the  world,  and  to  lay  such  a  road,  partly  through  the 
jungle,  partly  through  virgin  forests,  and  partly  across 
rivers  and  ravines,  required  the  genius  of  a  very 
unusual  man. 

Daendels  was  a  man  endowed  with  tremendous 
energy  and  an  elastic  conscience.  With  him  the  end 
justified  the  means. 

The  highway  was  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  peace  in  the  islands.  It  crossed  the  two 
sultanates  of  Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta,  which  were 
the  rival  successors  to  the  kingdom  of  Mataram. 

[152] 


It  made  possible  the  swift  movement  of  armed  forces 
from  one  end  of  the  island  to  the  other,  and  it  likewise 
made  possible  the  delivery  of  the  much-wanted 
produce.  At  the  far  eastern  end  the  fortress  of 
Zutphen  was  built,  which  did  much  toward  controlling 
the  difficulties  between  the  people  of  Java  and  those 
of  Bali. 

When  the  Sultan  of  Bantam  had  very  justly 
refused  to  furnish  any  more  native  laborers  in  lieu  of 
those  who  had  died  of  fever  in  the  unhealthy  swamps 
where  Daendels  had  put  them  to  work  constructing 
a  fort  (British  invasion  being  expected),  he  settled  the 
question  by  marching  on  Bantam  with  an  armed 
force.  Arriving  at  his  destination  he  executed  the 
" Rijksbestuurder "  (native  prime  minister),  and  re- 
moved the  sultan  bodily  from  the  throne,  occupying 
it  temporarily  himself. 

The  Sultan  of  Djokjakarta  was  treated  in  like 
manner,  and  Daendels  aboHshed  the  humihating 
ceremony  to  which  the  residents  were  compelled  to 
submit  when  meeting  for  the  first  time  the  particular 
sultan  to  whom  they  were  accredited.  Daendels  was 
a  tyrant  in  name  and  in  fact.  He  inaugurated  the 
abolition  of  forced  deliveries  of  spices,  but  extended 
the  forced  governmental  culture  of  coffee  to  a  very 
large  extent.  He  raised  the  salaries  of  the  civil 
servants,  but  ruthlessly  punished  anyone  who  grafted 
on  the  treasury.  On  the  other  hand,  he  sold  a  few 
estates  in  fee  simple  absolute,  thereby  introducing  a 
disturbing  element  in  the  land  tenure  structure.     In 

[153] 


this  he  followed  the  example  of  the  British  Governor 
General  Raffles. 

Nevertheless  government  affairs  were  far  from 
prosperous.  For  one  thing  the  Dutch  troops,  for- 
merly always  victorious,  in  the  end  had  been  de- 
feated by  the  English.  This  left  a  deep  impression 
on  the  native  rulers. 

The  first  trouble  took  the  form  of  a  serious  guerilla 
war,  known  as  the  Java  War  (1825-30).  The  primary 
cause  was  an  effort  to  curb  the  exorbitant  leasehold 
revenue  obtained  by  the  native  princes  from  their 
tenants.  Depo  Negora,  an  illegitimate  son  of  a 
former  Sultan  of  Djokjakarta,  was  the  ringleader, 
Prince  Mangku  Boemi,  a  legitimate  noble,  being  his 
assistant.  Depo  Negora  raised  the  Islam  standard 
of  the  Holy  War,  and  declared  that  he  fought  in  the 
name  of  the  Prophet.  This  brought  almost  the  whole 
Mohammedan  population  to  his  side. 

The  war  was  waged  with  great  bitterness  on  both 
sides,  all  European  inhabitants,  especially  the  British 
and  French,  siding  with  the  Dutch  rulers.  Finally  a 
large  army  was  placed  in  the  field  under  General  de 
Kock,  and  Depo  Negora  was  captured  on  March  28, 
1830.  The  war  had  lasted  five  years,  had  cost  the 
government  fifteen  thousand  lives  and  twenty-five 
million  dollars,  and  had  devastated  several  of  the 
central  provinces,  but  was  instrimiental  in  consoli- 
dating the  European  rule  in  Java. 

Immediately  after  the  close  of  the  war,  the  new 
governor  general  introduced  the  system  of  forced 

[154] 


cultivation  of  crops  for  the  European  markets.  This 
became  the  famous,  or  notorious,  cultuur  stelsel  (culture 
system) . 

From  a  material  standpoint  this  culture  system 
was  a  complete  success.  Notwithstanding  the  many 
abuses  to  which  it  gave  rise,  it  not  only  brought  the 
mother  country  the  desired  treasure,  but  it  increased 
enormously  the  wealth  of  Java,  and  its  population 
grew  in  numbers  as  well  as  in  prosperity. 

Curiously  enough  the  system  was  staunchly 
defended  by  such  keen  foreign  observers  as  J.  W.  B. 
Money,'  a  famous  lawyer  of  Calcutta,  who  inves- 
tigated the  whole  proposition  and  praised  it  highly. 
Wallace,  the  great  naturalist,  was  likewise  equally 
enthusiastic.^  On  the  other  hand,  Douwes  Dekker, 
a  retired  Netherlands  East  Indian  functionary,  in 
his  famous  book,  MuUatuU,  bitterly  condemns  the 
system's  abuses  and  its  consequences.  The  truth,  of 
course,  lies  between  these  laudatory  and  defamatory 
criticisms.     Here  are  the  facts: 

The  Netherlands  government  had  contracted  a 
loan  for  Insulinde,  the  principal  and  interest  of  which 
was  guaranteed  by  the  Home  Government.  The 
proceeds  of  this  loan  were  expended  for  the  benefit  of 
the  colonies,  and  the  Home  Government  desired  to 
devise  ways  and  means  by  which  the  colonies  could  be 
made  to  provide  for  the  interest  charges  and  the 
inevitable  funding  expenses.     The  exports  of  Java, 

'  J.  W.  B.  Money,  Java,  or  How  to  Manage  a  Colony,  1859. 
'  A.  R.  Wallace,  The  Malay  Archipelago. 

[155] 


however,  had  diminished,  and  the  colonies  threatened 
to  become  a  heavy  expense  to  the  mother  country/ 

It  was  useless  to  expect  the  indigenous  population 
to  better  their  conditions,  for  they  had  neither  the 
capital,  the  energy,  nor  the  intellectual  forces  neces- 
sary to  engage  successfully  in  agricultural  enterprises 
on  a  large  scale.  Should  this  population  be  left  to  its 
own  devices,  it  would  simply  continue  to  Hve  under 
fear  of  its  own  sultans,  rajahs,  or  headmen — so  rea- 
soned the  proponents  of  the  new  system.  They  would 
raise  little  more  than  just  enough  rice  for  their  own 
consumption,  and  make  very  little,  if  any,  progress 
in  social  evolution. 

It  was  therefore  proposed  to  furnish  European 
capital,  skill,  and  management,  not  to  exploit  the  land 
already  under  cultivation  by  the  natives,  but  to  use, 
under  long  leaseholds,  the  unoccupied  lands,  generally 
covered  by  virgin  forests  and  impenetrable  swamps. 

The  idea  was  also  advanced  that  these  improve- 
ments should  be  imdertaken  with  freeman's  labor  and 
under  no  consideration  would  slaves  be  used.  Slavery 
had  not  yet  been  aboHshed  in  Java.  Unfortunately 
insufiScient  labor  was  forthcoming,  and  consequently 
a  new  system  was  devised  which  may  be  described 
as  follows: 

The  state  was  sovereign  in  the  sense  that  under 
the  Oriental  feudal  system  all  land  belonged  to  the 

'See  "Report  of  Du  Bus  de  Gisignies  to  King  William  I," 
dated  May  1,1827,  and  published  in  Stein  Parve's  work.  The  Colonial 
Monopolists  System  (1851). 

[156] 


state  as  overlord.  The  natives  using  the  land  were 
not  in  a  position  to  pay  either  cash  rent  or  taxes. 
In  lieu  of  this  rent  and  these  taxes  the  natives  were 
induced  to  plant  one-fifth  of  their  rice  lands  to 
products  to  be  indicated  by  the  governmental  officers. 
These  matters  were  to  be  regulated  by  negotiations 
with  the  population  and  by  contract.  Governor 
General  van  den  Bosch  was  the  man  who  advocated 
this  system  and  to  whom  its  execution  was  intrusted. 

But  the  unfortunate  condition  of  the  treasury 
of  the  mother  country,  on  account  of  its  Belgian 
troubles,  made  the  raising  of  large  revenues  as  quickly 
as  possible  an  imperative  necessity.  Soon  many  evils 
entered  the  system.  Instead  of  one-fifth  of  the  fields 
a  larger  proportion  was  insisted  upon.  Orders  to  the 
headmen  were  substituted  for  negotiations  with  the 
population. 

The  people  were  paid  for  their  work  in  natura, 
which  was  often  salable  locally  only  at  a  very  low 
figure.  Some  of  the  products,  such  as  indigo  and 
sugar  cane,  had  to  undergo  a  manufacturing  process, 
and  the  natives  were  ill-prepared  to  get  the  best 
results  from  their  share  of  the  product.  Again,  some 
of  the  coffee  plantations  were  poorly  located,  and 
therefore  brought  small  returns,  while  other  fields 
were  so  far  away  from  the  villages  that  travel  back 
and  forth  became  exceedingly  burdensome. 

The  payment  in  natura,  by  percentage  of  the  crops, 
worked  out  in  the  following  way:  In  case  of  failure 
the  laborer  received  little  or  no  remuneration,  while 

[157] 


in  case  of  success  and  high  prices,  the  employer,  that 
is  the  government,  took  the  lion's  share  of  the  profits. 
In  1847  Governor  General  Rochussen  endeavored  to 
curb  the  system  and  its  consequences.  Several  voices 
were  heard  in  the  Netherlands  protesting  against  the 
abuses  of  the  system.  In  1865  the  minister  of  the 
colonies,  Fransen  van  de  Putte,  made  a  determined 
effort,  partly  successful,  to  abolish  the  system  gradu- 
ally. One  culture  after  another  was  abandoned,  and 
finally  the  law  of  1870  sounded  the  death-knell  of  the 
whole  system. 

Since  the  abolition  of  the  forced  cultivation 
system,  private  enterprise  has  enormously  expanded, 
even  beyond  the  wildest  dreams  of  the  staunchest 
proponents  of  the  institution.  While  in  operation 
the  forced-cultivation  system  has  many  faults,  the 
principal  one  from  a  modern  standpoint  was  that 
the  human  equation  was  subordinate  to  "business." 
The  descendants  of  those  who  suffered  under  the 
sytem  are  now  however  reaping  a  rich  harvest  of  the 
difficulties  their  fathers  and  mothers  labored  under — 
advantages  they  may  never  have  known  without  the 
heroic  measures  applied  by  the  system  of  forced 
cultivation. 

Politically  speaking  the  nineteenth  century  was 
a  period  of  disturbed  peace.  One  expedition  after 
another  had  to  leave  Batavia  to  quench  incipient  or 
open  revolts  among  the  neighboring  princes. 

Piracy  was  still  practiced  by  many  of  the  native 
rulers,  and  it  took  extraordinary  energy  and  effort  to 

[158] 


preach  the  gospel  of  stability  of  good  government  all 
through  Insulinde. 

One  of  the  most  strenuous  of  these  rebellions  was 
that  which  broke  out  in  1873  in  the  Sultanate  of  Atjeh, 
at  the  extreme  northern  end  of  Sumatra.  The  sultan 
offered  a  curious  excuse.  It  appears  that  in  1819  the 
Sultan  of  Atjeh  had  made  a  treaty  with  the  Penang 
government  by  the  direction  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles. 
In  1872  the  Dutch  and  English  entered  into  a  treaty 
by  which  the  former  were  given  a  free  hand  in  Sumatra; 
and  England,  for  other  considerations,  withdrew  all  its 
claims  as  to  Sumatra.  The  Sultan  of  Atjeh,  however, 
refused  to  recognize  this  new  arrangement,  declared 
that  England  and  not  the  Netherlands  was  his  over- 
lord, and  made  a  hostile  demonstration  against  the 
latter.  The  sultan's  recognition  of  England  could  not 
be  taken  too  seriously,  for  many  of  his  subjects  were 
lusty  pirates,  preying  on  Dutch  and  English  commerce 
with  equal  vigor. 

By  a  strange  coincidence  James  Loudon  was 
governor  general  of  Insulinde.  His  father  was  the 
well-known  Britisher,  Alexander  Loudon,  who  had 
come  to  Java  with  the  British  expedition  in  1811.^ 
It  now  fell  to  James  Loudon's  lot  to  enforce  the 
Netherlands  rights  to  this  sultanate.  It  was,  how- 
ever, not  until  1898  that  the  sultanate  was  finally 
pacified— that  is  soundly  thrashed. 

'  One  of  the  sons  of  James  Loudon  is  Jonkheer  Dr.  John  Loudon, 
former  Minister  of  the  Netherlands  at  Washington,  D.C.,  and  now 
acting  in  a  like  capacity  in  Paris.  Dr.  John  Loudon,  who  is  married 
to  an  .\merican  lady,  was  one  of  the  most  popular  and  respected 
diplomats  ever  accredited  to  the  American  government. 

(159] 


Only  those  who  have  ever  watched  native  warfare 
in  a  tropical  country  will  realize  the  tremendous  diffi- 
culties under  which  the  Netherlands  troops  had  to 
labor  while  campaigning  under  the  tropical  sun,  and 
among  treacherous  natives  often  intrenched  in  well- 
nigh  impenetrable  jungles,  virgin  forests,  or  swamps. 

Numerous  other  expeditions  had  to  be  sent  out, 
for  instance,  several  to  lower  Sumatra,  several  to 
Bali,  and  so  on,  but  finally  the  overlordship  of  the 
Netherlands  was  established  throughout  the  archi- 
pelago. And  with  this  overlordship  came  good  gov- 
erimient,  peace,  and  prosperity.  And  with  good 
government  came  all  its  agencies:  a  clean  adminis- 
tration, a  humane  judicature,  a  just  attitude  toward 
the  natives  and  whites  alike,  safety  to  persons  and 
property,  and  finally  great  commercial  and  industrial 
prosperity. 

Slowly,  but  surely,  there  was  built  up  in  these 
Far  Eastern  islands  a  wonderful  structure  of  govern- 
ment, which  today  is  second  to  no  other  colonial 
administration  in  the  world,  and  superior  to  most,  if 
not  all  of  them. 

It  would  lead  us  too  far  afield  to  trace  the  evolution 
of  all  these  governmental  agencies  through  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Volumes  have  been  written  on  this 
subject,  and  many  more  could  be  written.  For  our 
purpose  it  must  suffice  to  give  some  details  of  the 
conditions  existing  in  Insulinde  of  today,  which 
are  the  direct  result  of  the  tireless  efforts  of  the 
previous  century. 

[i6o] 


CHAPTER  X.    INSULINDE  OF  TODAY 


The  political  situation — Executive  and  legislative  branches  of 
government — Council  of  Indies — Beginning  of  representative 
form  of  government— People's  Council — Division  of  InsuUnde 
into  residencies — European  and  native  ofl&cials — Assistant 
residencies — Supervisional  districts — Heads  of  divisions — The 
retiring  governor  general — Self-governing  countrysides — Based 
on  historic  rights — Based  on  recent  emancipation — Euro- 
pean judiciary  courts — Native  courts — Courts  of  appeal — 
Court  of  cassation — Courts  for  civil  and  criminal  cases — Resi- 
dential court  for  minor  cases — Landraad — Landgerechl — 
Ecclesiastical  courts — Education — Technical  University  at 
Bandong — Native  Law  College — Training  schools  for  native 
officials — Medical  colleges — Agricultural  colleges — Training 
schools  for  native  instructors — Primary  instruction — Diffi- 
culties of  government — Need  of  assistance  from  private 
enterprises — Sur-school  taxes  necessary — Governmental  activi- 
ties criticized  by  foreigners:  {a)  Salt  monopoly — {b)  State 
monopoly  of  opium — (c)  Insufficient  instruction  in  modern 
language,  especially  Dutch — {d)  Penal  sanction;  Govern- 
mental activities  approved  by  whites  and  natives :  (a)  Adminis- 
tration of  railroads  and  tramways — {h)  Postal,  telegraph,  and 
telephone  service — (c)  Road  system — {d)  Construction  and 
maintenance  of  harbors,  etc. — (e)  Foreign  trade — (/)  Mining — 
(g)  Water-power  and  electric  service — (h)  Police  system — 
(i)  Prisons;  Native  activities:  (a)  Native  banking — (6)  Pawn- 
shops— (c)  Health  regvdations — {d)  Agricultural  information 
service — {e)  Irrigation — (/)  Civil  veterinary  service — (g)  Fish- 
eries— {h)  Forestry 


INSULINDE  OF  TODAY 


THE  POLITICAL   SITUATION 


HE  Netherlands  East  Indies  are  a  part  of 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  It  there- 
fore follows  that  the  States  General  in  the 
Netherlands,  elected  by  general  suffrage, 
is  the  chief  legislative  body  for  the  colonies 
as  well  as  for  the  mother  country. 

The  executive  power  in  the  Netherlands  is  vested 
in  the  crown,  but  the  Netherlands  being  a  strictly 
liberal  constitutional  country,  the  ministers  of  the 
crown,  who  are  selected  from  the  majority  party 
in  power,  are  the  really  responsible  persons.  One 
of  these  is  the  minister  of  the  colonies,  who  is 
responsible  to  the  States  General  for  the  conduct 
of  the  government  in  the  Orient.  His  seat  is  in 
the  Hague,  where  all  the  executive  departments  are 
located. 

As  the  supreme  executive  power  in  the  colonies  is 
vested  in  the  crown,  the  governor  general  rules 
Insulinde  in  the  name  of  the  queen.  In  him  are 
vested  also  certain  legislative  powers,  which  he  has 
exercised  for  years  in  conjunction  with  an  advisory 
body  of  great  influence  and  dignity.  This  is  the 
CouncU  of  the  Indies  {Raad  van  Indie) ,  composed  of 
five  members  and  presided  over  by  the  \'ice-president. 
Only  in  extraordinary  cases  does  the  governor  general 
preside.  Should  the  latter  be  absent  or  temporarily 
incapacitated,  the  vice-president  of  the  council 
assumes  all  his  duties. 

[163] 


The  governor  general  has  also  a  cabinet,  which 
consists  of  the  heads  of  the  nine  executive  depart- 
ments of  the  government,  called  directors,  who  meet 
together  in  what  is  known  as  the  "  Council  of  Depart- 
ment Heads." 

The  position  of  private  or  executive  secretary  to 
the  president  or  governor,  which  is  of  so  much 
importance  both  in  Washington  and  the  various 
state  Capitols  in  the  United  States,  finds  its  counter- 
part in  the  office  of  "  general  secretary  "  at  Buitenzorg. 

This  general  secretary  is  really  the  executive 
secretary  to  the  governor  general.  His  is  a  post  of 
great  importance,  as  the  incumbent  is  almost  daily  in 
confidential  communication  with  his  chief.  Through 
his  hands  passes  all  the  executive  work.  He  is  at 
the  head  of  the  executive  officers  immediately  attached 
as  an  official  family  to  the  governor  general. 

During  the  late  war,  when  the  economic  conditions 
of  Insulinde  were  violently  disturbed,  this  important 
position  was  first  filled  by  the  Honorable  Jonkheer 
A.  C.  D.  de  Graeft*,  now  minister  of  the  Netherlands 
at  Tokyo.  After  Mr.  de  Graeff  had  become  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  the  Indies  and  subsequently  filled 
the  very  important  position  of  \dce-president  of  that 
body,  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Honorable  Hulshoff 
Pol,  who  also  became  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  the  Indies.  His  able  successor  was  the  Honorable 
G.  R.  Erdbrink. 

Since  191 6  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  the 
development    of    a    direct    representative    form    of 

[164] 


government  for  the  whole  of  Insulinde.  The  first 
step  taken  was  the  institution  of  the  "People's 
Council"  (Volksraad),  consisting  at  present  of  thirty- 
nine  members.  Its  president  is  appointed  by  the 
crown;  nineteen  of  its  members  (five  natives,  fourteen 
Europeans  and  foreign  Orientals)  hold  office  by  virtue 
of  appointment  by  the  governor  general,  while  the 
balance  (ten  natives  and  nine  Europeans  and  foreign 
Orientals)  are  elected  by  local  assemblies. 

While  the  chief  executive  is  at  liberty  to  consult 
this  People's  Council  in  all  important  matters,  he  is 
compelled  by  law  to  consult  mth  it  on  all  matters 
appertaining  to  taxation,  the  issuance  of  bonds 
(other  than  those  estabhshed  by  act  of  the  States 
General),  the  enactment  of  ordinances  imposing  mili- 
tary duties,  and  many  other  subjects  indicated  by  law 
or  executive  order.  The  writer  had  the  pleasure  of 
visiting  several  of  the  sessions  of  this  new  consul- 
tative body,  which  is  fast  developing,  in  fact  very 
much  faster  than  its  originators  intended,  into  a  par- 
liamentary assembly. 

The  native  members,  sometimes  using  the  Nether- 
lands tongue,  and  sometimes  the  Malay,  showed  a 
keen  interest  in  all  the  proceedings,  and  were  not . 
slow  in  expressing  their  views  and  conclusions  most 
forcibly  if  they  deemed  that  the  occasion  demanded  it. 

It  is  a  good  omen  for  the  future  of  this  assembly, 
and  a  sign  of  the  times  that  the  sessions  are  held 
in  the  former  palace  of  the  general  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army.     The  meeting  takes  place  in  the 

[165] 


v/ 


ballroom  of  this  stately  mansion,  where  officers  of 
the  army  and  navy  and  civil  functionaries  used  to 
pay  their  respects  to  the  military  chief.  In  their 
place  one  hears  now  the  voices  of  the  natives  in 
authoritative  tones. 

This  council  has  the  power  to  make  representation 
directly  to  the  crown  or  to  the  States  General,  and 
demand  in  writing  information  of  any  of  the  depart- 
ments, which  information  must  be  rendered  in  the 
same  form.  Its  meetings  are  open  to  the  public  and 
the  press,  unless  it  desires  to  go  into  general  com- 
mittee. 

For  administrative  purposes,  Insulinde  has  sub- 
divisions at  the  head  of  which  stand  Netherlands 
officials  known  as  "residents,"  or  in  three  cases  as 
"governors."  There  are  thirty-four  residents.  A 
double  hierarchy  of  officials  function,  to-wit,  the  Euro- 
peans and  the  natives.  Every  residency  or  governor- 
ship is  divided  into  two,  three,  or  four  assistant 
residencies.  At  the  head  of  each  of  these  stands: 
(i)  the  assistant  resident,  (2)  the  regent.  The  for- 
mer is  a  trained  Netherlands  governmental  officer. 
The  latter  is  a  native  official,  selected  on  account  of 
his  experience  and  the  general  position  which  he 
holds  in  the  community.  He  usually  belongs  to  the 
old  nobility  of  the  countryside. 

Each  assistant  residency  is  dixdded  into  super- 
visional  districts.  At  the  head  of  these  stand:  (i)  the 
controller,  (2)  the  wedana,  or  other  native  official. 
The   former   is   a   junior   trained   official   from   the 

[166] 


Netherlands,  the  latter  an  influential  native.  The 
controllers  are  trained  at  the  University  of  Leyden, 
where  they  follow  a  special  course  for  three  years, 
after  graduating  from  the  local  high  school.  In 
addition  they  can  take  a  post-graduate  course  of 
two  years  at  the  Civil  Service  Academy  of  the  Hague. 
They  are  thoroughly  trained  in  the  various  systems 
of  colonial  government,  native  language,  native 
criminal  and  civil  law  {adat),  political  science,  etc. 
Those  who  do  not  aspire  to  the  highest  rank,  may 
receive  their  education  at  the  Civil  Service  College 
at  Batavia,  where  they  go  through  a  thorough 
training  before  being  appointed  civil  administrators 
{Gezaghehhers) . 

The  position  of  the  European  oflScial  toward 
the  native  is  that  of  older  brother  and  counselor. 
It  naturally  requires  a  great  deal  of  tact.  The  native 
ofl&cial  is  likewise  trained  in  one  of  the  colleges 
which  are  known  as  "Training  Schools  for  Native 
Officials."  Those  who  show  particular  aptitude 
are  transferred  to  the  Civil  Service  College  and  pre- 
pared for  the  higher  positions.  Here  they  are  taught 
both  the  Dutch  and  English  languages,  Dutch  East 
Indian  law,  political  economy,  and  in  addition 
attention  is  paid  to  practical  matters,  such  as  agri- 
culture, irrigation,  hygiene,  etc. 

The  highest  rank  among  these  native  officials  is 
"Regent."  These  men  are  the  true  heads  of  the 
native  population,  have  charge  of  the  native  poUce 
in   the   assistant  residencies    (except  in   the   larger 

[167] 


cities  where  the  police  organization  resembles  the 
American  police  department,  with  a  chief,  etc.),  of 
taxation,  etc.  To  them  are  also  responsible  the  minor 
native  officials  within  the  respective  regencies.  The 
office  is  often  hereditary,  in  so  far  as  this  conforms 
to  pubHc  interest.  The  regent  is  generally  assisted 
by  the  patih,  a  native  executive.  Besides  he  has  a 
council  of  district  chiefs  as  an  advisory  and  legislative 
body. 

Where  there  are  still  original  native  states,  semi- 
self-governing,  the  sultan  stands  next  to  the  resident 
or  governor,  or  in  the  small  states,  next  to  the  assistant 
resident  or  controller. 

Under  the  wedana  stands  the  dessa  head,  also 
called  djaro  or  petinggi.  He  is  really  the  village  mayor. 
The  dessas  or  villages  enjoy  a  marked  autonomy. 
These  villages  regulate  their  own  domestic  affairs; 
they  elect  their  own  aldermen — so-called  "headmen. " 
The  elections  are  carefully  watched  by  the  Nether- 
lands officials  to  prevent  any  possible  suppression 
of  the  village  wishes. 

Besides  the  local  village  councils,  there  are  found 
throughout  Insulinde,  in  one  form  or  another,  pro- 
vincial and  municipal  councils,  which  consist  either 
of  natives  exclusively,  or  of  natives  and  Europeans 
combined.  Ever  since  1903  the  legislative  rights  of 
the  residents,  "by  ordinance"  have  been  constantly 
curtailed,  and  this  right  transferred  to  the  local  and 
provincial  councils.  Cautiously  but  steadily  the 
Netherlands  government  is  progressing  in  its  desire 

[168] 


to  intrust  the  different  subdivisions  of  Insulinde 
with  more  and  more  political  power,  freeing  them 
from  unnecessary  central  restraint. 

An  initial  experiment  of  placing  almost  all  the 
local  power,  under  proper  state  supervision,  of  course, 
in  the  hands  of  the  representatives  of  the  people 
has  been  made  in  two  places:  One  in  the  Preanger 
(south  of  Batavia),  one  on  the  island  of  Celebes 
(19 1 8-1 9).  It  is  now  the  plan  to  introduce  this 
system  in  at  least  one  "regency"  or  assistant  resi- 
dency of  every  residency  in  Java  and  Madura,  and 
to  continue  the  gradual  emancipation  of  the  popula- 
tion along  these  lines.  ^ 

The  old  Netherlands  ideal,  ''local  self-govern- 
ment," was  recognized  from  the  very  beginning  of 
the  contact  of  the  Hollanders  and  the  natives. 
The  slogan  of  the  town  meeting  was  reflected  in  the 
saying  "the  dessa  must  remain  inviolate."  For  the 
last  twenty-five  years  this  system  has  been  slowly 
but  surely  extended  to  the  districts  and  provinces, 
and  eventually,  when  the  poHtical  progress  of  the 
inhabitants  warrants  it,  this  condition  will  be  preva- 
lent everywhere. 

A  matter  which  must  strike  the  observer  is  that 
there  is  nothing  happy-go-lucky  or  haphazard  about 
this  colonial  administration.  Its  servants  are  highly 
trained  ofl&cials,  who  very  slowly  climb  through  the 
different  ranks  to  the  highest  positions. 

The  system  is  highly  scientific,  its  servants  are 
all  experts,  and  the  writer  must  confess  that  never 

[169] 


in  any  other  place  in  the  world  has  he  met  with  a 
finer  or  higher  type  of  men  than  is  found  within 
the  great  body  of  civil  servants  in  Insulinde.  To 
watch  them  in  their  intercourse  with  the  native 
rulers,  nobility,  aye,  with  the  simplest  dessaman, 
is  to  watch  an  attitude  of  firmness,  dignity,  simplicity, 
and  human  kindness  which  cannot  fail  to  make  a 
deep  and  lasting  impression. 

During  his  months  of  travel  in  the  colonies,  the 
writer  did  not  see  one  act  of  rudeness  or  arrogance 
from  any  one  of  these  men  in  authority.  While  he 
came  into  contact  with  many,  he  had  special  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  the  attitude  of  the  Honorable 
A.J.  W.  Harloff,  Resident  of  Surakarta,  and  the  Honor- 
able P.  W.  Jonquiere,  Resident  of  Djokjakarta,  when 
meeting  the  rulers  of  the  sultanates  of  these  same 
names  on  important  occasions. 

Both  gentlemen  were  of  large  physique  and 
commanding  appearance,  both  had  ample  power  in 
their  hands  to  "command,"  both  in  fact  had  a  well- 
equipped  military  force  at  their  backs,  both  lived 
in  residences  of  which  the  lofty  apartments  made  one 
think  of  the  salons  of  palaces,  both  showed  strength 
and  determination  in  all  their  movements,  and  both 
were  simple,  unassuming,  and  kindly  toward  all 
with  whom  they  came  in  contact,  including  the  most 
humble,  which  made  a  young  American  girl,  a 
graduate  of  Wellesley  College,  who  traveled  as  a 
trained  private  secretary  with  the  writer's  party, 
exclaim:   "How  splendid  these  men  are!     One  would 

[170] 


A    NtTHKRLANDS   OFFICIALS    VISIT  TO  THE   SULTAN    OF   DJOKJA- 
KARTA. JAVA  (JULY.  1919) 


take  them  in  their  dignity  and  simplicity  for  high- 
grade  American  gentlemen."  And  the  writer  said 
*'amen"  to  this  remark,  with  the  mental  reservation 
that  a  ''high-grade  gentleman"  is  about  the  same  all 
over  the  world,  whether  he  be  a  Hollander,  an  Ameri- 
can, or  of  other  blood. 

One  warm  August  night  in  19 19  the  Sultan  of 
Surakarta  invited  the  author  and  his  party  to  visit 
the  kraton  (palace)  and  witness  a  ballet  of  native 
dancers.  After  the  famous  female  dancers,  with 
almost  unbeHevable  grace  and  deUcacy,  had  given 
their  performance,  two  of  the  young  princes,  in 
gorgeous  ornate  court  costumes,  gave  an  exhibition 
of  native  dancing  and  sword  play,  accompanied  by 
the  weird  music  of  the  gamalang.  One  of  them,  a 
grandson  of  the  Sultan,  was  called  to  the  dais,  where 
the  sultan,  the  princess,  his  favorite  wife,  the  resident 
and  his  guests  were  seated.  I  say  "favorite"  wife, 
for  His  Highness  is  supposed  to  have  several,  besides 
many  hundred  concubines,  of  whom  about  one 
hundred  more  or  less  were  in  evidence.  The  young 
prince  approached  his  grandfather  with  the  usual 
signs  of  abject  respect,  on  his  knees,  salaaming,  etc., 
but  one  can  imagine  our  astonishment  when  the 
resident,  addressing  the  prince,  said  in  simple  Dutch : 
"Well,  sonny,  how  are  you  getting  along  in  school? 
In  what  grade  are  you  now?"  The  boy  changed  at 
once  from  a  butterfly  in  barbaric  Oriental  splendor, 
to  a  very  nice  schoolboy.  A  smile  spHt  his  face  from 
ear  to  ear,  and  he  answered  in  equally  good  Dutch, 

[171] 


"Fine,  thank  you,  sir,  I  am  in  the  seventh  grade 
but  arithmetic  is  hard,  isn't  it?" 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  here  that  the  lofty  ideals 
of  justice,  humanity,  and  ethics  of  the  retiring  gov- 
ernor general.  His  Excellency,  J.  P.  Count  van  Lim- 
burg  Stirum,  have  had  a  vitalizing  influence  on  the 
attitude  of  all  right-minded  Europeans  toward  the 
natives.  As  he  retires  he  lays  down  a  heavy  burden, 
but  though  a  prophet,  he  is  not  without  honor  in  his 
own  country.  This  high-minded  gentleman  was  ably 
assisted  by  his  charming  and  devoted  wife,  a  grande 
dame,  but,  still  better,  a  good,  fine,  charitable  woman. 

A  sketch  of  the  government  administration  service 
would  not  be  complete,  if  the  so-called  self-governing 
countrysides  were  not  mentioned.  This  self-govern- 
ment is  based  on  historic  rights,  as  distinguished  from 
those  self-governments  which  are  based  on  recent 
emancipation.  Among  the  latter' s  agencies,  the  pro- 
vincial and  district  councils,  and  the  municipal  assem- 
blies, besides  the  two  experiments  hereinbefore 
mentioned,  are  prominent.  All  the  larger  municipali- 
ties have  their  own  mayor  or  burgomaster,  their  own 
municipal  council,  etc. — in  one  word  their  own  self- 
government.  They  are  authorized  to  levy  municipal 
taxes,  and  all  municipal  activities,  such  as  abattoirs, 
parks,  public  markets,  health  services,  sewerage, 
lighting,  and  water  systems  are  within  their  jurisdic- 
tion. There  are  nineteen  such  municipal  councils  in 
the  Indies,  and  they  all  enjoy  local  self-government. 
They  are  quite  different  from  the  so-called  historic 

[172] 


self-governing  regions.  These  are  the  sultanates,  or 
other  principalities  or  political  divisions,  which  were 
never  incorporated  under  direct  Dutch  rule,  although 
lately  several  of  them  have  been  incorporated  by 
request  of  the  population. 

There  always  were  independent  little  nations 
or  tribes  which  had  treaties  or  contracts  with  the 
central  government.  These  treaties  were  constantly 
amended  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  fair  develop- 
ment of  their  peoples;  they  prohibited  slave  trade, 
unusual  and  cruel  punishments,  piracy,  etc.,  and  as 
long  as  these  conditions  were  lived  up  to,  the  independ- 
ence of  the  native  rulers  was  respected.  The  native 
rulers,  however,  continually  violated  these  rules,  and 
finally  the  different  treaties  were  mostly  replaced  by  a 
poHtical  contract  called  the  "Abridged  Declaration." 

Throughout  InsuHnde  there  are  two  hundred  and 
eighty  of  these  self-governments,  besides  two  major 
and  two  minor  sultanates  in  Java. 

The  central  government  places  its  civil  servants 
alongside  of  each  of  the  rulers  of  these  little  countries, 
and  they  instruct  these  rulers  in  the  proper  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  the  humane  exercise  of  their 
hereditary  rights  and  powers,  etc. 

The  writer,  while  in  Sumatra,  visited  the  assistant 
residency  of  Pematang  Sir  Antar,  which  is  situated 
between  Toba  Lake  and  Medan.  He  was  cour- 
teously entertained  one  evening  by  the  assistant 
resident,  Mr.  J.  Tideman,  a  gentleman  of  broad 
sympathies  and  keen  insight  into  native  character. 

[173] 


Together  they  visited  *'het  internaat  voor  Vorsten- 
zonen"  (the  boarding  school  for  young  princes). 
These  young  princes,  sons  of  minor  sultans  and 
rajahs,  presuming  on  the  position  of  their  fathers, 
had  been  running  wild  and  accumulating  vicious 
habits  with  the  usual  Oriental  facility.  Even  little 
fellows  of  ten  and  eleven  years  old  were  already 
"friendly"  with  the  market  women!  These  boys 
had  been  gathered  together  by  this  Dutch  official 
and  placed  in  the  internaat.  Here  they  were  taught 
the  three  "R's,"  and,  still  better,  hygiene  and  Western 
decency.  They  were  a  lot  of  bright  and  happy  brown 
kiddies,  who  did  not  seem  to  fear  at  all  their  ''political 
daddy" — the  assistant  resident.  The  building  itself 
reminds  one  of  a  school  building  in  California, 
erected   in   mission   style    and   scrupulously   clean. 

Under  the  Dutch  supervision,  public  treasuries 
have  been  estabHshed,  as  contradistinguished  from 
the  sultan's  private  purse,  into  which  formerly  all 
revenue  flowed.  The  ruler  receives  a  fixed  salary; 
a  yearly  budget  must  be  made  up  to  be  approved  by 
the  resident,  etc. 

Eventually  these  peculiar  self-governing  districts 
will  evolve  to  the  same  position  as  the  other  self- 
governing  poHtical  subdivisions,  which  means  govern- 
ment by  the  people  themselves,  under  Netherlands 
ad\dce  and  supervision. 

The  judiciary. — ^As  shown  by  the  foregoing,  the 
legislative  and  executive  branches  of  the  government, 
while  forming  in  most  respects  two  entirely  different 

[174] 


divisions,  overlap  here  and  there.  The  same  may 
be  said  about  the  judiciary  branches  and  the  executive 
administration  of  the  government  of  Insulinde. 
At  the  head  of  this  division  stands  the  director  of 
the  department  of  justice,  an  official  whose  duties 
correspond  to  those  of  the  attorney  general  of  the 
United  States. 

As  independent  as  the  Supreme  Court  of  any 
American  state  is  of  the  governor  of  the  state,  just 
so  independent  is  the  high  court  of  judicature,  sitting 
at  Bata\aa,  of  the  governor  general.  This  court  is 
both  a  court  of  appeal  and  a  court  of  cassation. 
In  American  and  English  courts  this  distinction 
does  not  exist.  It  does,  however,  wherever  the 
Roman  law  is  the  foundation  of  the  jurisdiction 
practiced.  It  exercises  a  general  supervision  over  all 
the  courts  in  Insulinde,  not  only  by  virtue  of  appeals 
from  judgments  or  decrees,  but  by  a  direct  adminis- 
trative supervision. 

Civil  and  criminal  cases  between  or  against 
Europeans  are  brought  to  trial  in  the  first  instance 
before  six  courts,  of  which  three  have  their  principal 
seats  in  the  island  of  Java,  two  in  the  island  of 
Sumatra,  and  one  in  the  island  of  Celebes.  Each 
of  these  courts  has  several  judges. 

These  courts  correspond  to  the  Superior  Courts 
in  most  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  but  to  the  Supreme 
Courts  in  New  York. 

Furthermore,  in  every  residency  there  is  a  court 
which  one  may  compare  with  the  justice's  court  in 

[175] 


all  English-speaking  countries.  This  court  is  called 
the  residential  court,  and  minor  matters  between  or 
against  Europeans  are  adjudicated  there. 

The  courts  where  natives  are  tried  for  severe 
offenses,  or  where  they  have  their  differences  adjusted, 
are  called  Landraad.  They  correspond  with  the 
old  courts  "de  pied  poudre"  of  the  common  law. 
These  courts  are  presided  over  by  a  white  ofl&cial. 
In  Java  and  Madura  he  is  a  trained  jurist  who  is  a 
judicial  officer,  but  in  many  other  parts  of  Insulinde, 
they  are  presided  over  by  the  controller  or  other 
civil  servant  belonging  to  the  administrative  branch 
of  the  government.  All  the  members  of  the  court  are 
native  nobles  or  officials,  some  holding  office  by 
virtue  of  their  position,  others  by  appointment  of 
the  governor  general. 

Another  member  of  the  court  is  the  native  legal 
adviser  who  is  versed  in  the  customary  law  {adat), 
and  gives  opinions  to  the  other  members  in  con- 
formity therewith.  Finally,  the  public  prosecutor  is 
a  native  known  as  the  Djaksa.  In  him  are  combined 
the  offices  of  sheriff  and  district  attorney. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  courts  called  Land- 
gerecht  with  a  jurisdiction  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  police  courts  in  the  United  States  and  other 
English-speaking  countries.  Here  the  minor  offenses 
of  natives  are  tried.  From  the  judgments  of  some 
of  these  minor  courts  one  can  appeal,  others  are 
final,  but  all  the  officials  are  compelled  to  make 
entry  of  all  adjudgments  in  special  registers,  and  such 

[176] 


entry  must  contain,  among  other  things,  the  fines 
or  punishments  imposed.  At  any  time  the  high 
court  of  justice  at  Batavia  may  investigate  these 
records. 

The  minor  civil  cases  between  natives  are  heard 
before  a  native  tribunal  of  which  the  regent  is  presid- 
ing ofiicer,  or  before  the  particular  wedana  or  chief 
of  the  division  in  which  the  litigants  are  Hving. 
From  the  judgment  of  the  wedana  there  is  an  appeal 
to  the  regent;  from  the  latter 's  judgment  a  still  further 
appeal  can  be  made  to  the  Landraad. 

The  so-called  historic  self-governing  regions  all 
have  their  own  judication.  This,  however,  applies 
only  to  the  subjects  proper  of  the  sultan,  but  not 
to  any  of  the  other  residents.  The  jurisdiction  of 
these  courts,  however,  is  negligible. 

Finally,  there  are  ecclesiastical  courts,  which 
have  so-called  rehgious  jurisdiction  among  the 
natives.  They  take  cognizance  of  cases  affecting 
marriage,  divorce,  inheritance,  guardianship,  etc. — 
in  a  word  the  native  cases  which  come  directly  under 
the  commandments  of  the  Koran.  These  courts  curi- 
ously resemble  the  old  ecclesiastical  courts  of  England 
with  their  very  effective  jurisdictions.' 

The  Netherlands  criminal  code  is  applied  for  the 
natives  wherever  possible;  in  civil  suits  the  old 
customary  law  {adat)  is  often  followed. 

'  A  good  description  of  the  jurisdiction  of  these  courts  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  is  found  in  Dr.  Warren's  famous  book, 
Ten  Tfwusand  a  Year. 

[177] 


For  litigation  among  Europeans  provisions  of  the 
regular  codes  and  statutes  are  applied,  such  as  the 
Civil  Code,  Code  of  Ci\dl  Procedure,  Code  of  Com- 
merce (Law  Merchant),  Criminal  Code,  Code  of 
Criminal  Procedure,  etc. 

Education. — In  viemng  the  educational  facilities 
of  Insulinde,  it  is  not  necessary  to  attach  much 
importance  to  that  phase  of  the  problem  which  deals 
with  the  education  of  white  children.  It  is  only- 
natural  for  white  men  generally,  and  for  the  Dutch 
race  in  particular,  to  take  care  of  the  education  of 
its  own  youngsters.  Holland  had  a  public  school 
system  as  far  back  as  the  thirteenth  century,^  long 
before  any  other  Western  nation  ever  thought  of 
such  a  thing,  and  the  percentage  of  native  Hollanders 
who  are  illiterate  is  exceedingly  small,  in  fact  one  of 
the  smallest  in  the  world. 

But  what  has  the  Netherlands  government  done 
for  the  education  of  the  little  brown  wards  in  "Tropi- 
cal Holland"?  The  answer  must  be:  It  has  been 
neglectful  in  the  past,  but  is  doing  a  great  deal  at 
present,  and  must  do  far  more  in  the  future.  There 
is  no  university  proper  in  Insulinde,  although  in 
1920  a  beginning  was  made  by  opening  a  technical 
university  at  Bandong,  Java.  It  is  a  modest  begin- 
ning, but  it  may  be  the  nucleus  around  which  a  great 
institution  of  learning  will  soon  spring  up.  There 
are,  however,  a  number  of  institutions  for  the  natives 

'  See  Holland,  by  H.  A.  van  Coenen  Torchiana,  San  Francisco, 
1915- 

[178] 


which  we  may  compare  with  the  smaller  colleges  in 
the  United  States,  as  follows: 

I .  The  native  law  college,  where  native  jurists  are 
being  trained  for  judicial  positions.  This  was  estab- 
lished in  1909.  Students  are  admitted  here  after 
graduating  from  the  grammar  schools.  The  course 
is  six  years,  three  being  devoted  to  general  education, 
and  three  to  the  study  of  various  branches  of  law, 
including  the  Adat. 

It  is  hoped  that  a  greater  number  of  native 
jurists  may  be  constantly  developed,  who  will  natur- 
ally be  in  closer  contact  with  the  population  and 
better  acquainted  with  the  customs  and  languages 
of  the  different  peoples  than  Netherlands  jurists 
could  be.  Particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  ethical 
training  of  the  pupils,  wliich  is  one  reason  why  the 
students  are  housed  at  the  college.  So  far,  only  sons 
of  native  upper-class  families  are  being  admitted. 
They  furnish  the  most  promising  material  for  the 
present. 

2.  The  training  schools  for  native  officials. 

These  schools  have  been  in  existence  for  a  long 
time.  Graduates  of  the  native  Dutch  grammar 
schools  are  admitted.  They  then  follow  a  course 
of  seven  years,  five  of  which  are  devoted  to  technical 
subjects,  such  as  elementary  jurisprudence,  principles 
of  poHtical  economy,  agricultural  engineering,  admin- 
istration, etc.  Dutch,  Malay,  and  one  of  nine  native 
languages  are  taught.  The  pupils  are  boarded  at 
the  coUege;  tuition  fees  are  graduated  in  accordance 

[179] 


with  the  abihty  of  the  parents  to  pay.     There  are 
several  of  these  colleges  in  the  islands. 

3.  There  are  two  medical  colleges  for  the  training 
of  native  physicians,  the  second  being  opened  in  19 13. 
The  requirements  for  admittance  are  the  same  as 
for  the  law  school.     The  course  takes  ten  years. 

4.  There  are  two  agricultural  colleges,  where 
veterinary  surgery  is  also  taught. 

5.  There  are  eight  institutions  for  the  training  of 
native  instructors,  five  of  which  are  in  Java  and  three 
outside  of  that  island.  In  1918  a  training  school 
for  native  women  instructors  was  also  established. 
The  course  is  five  years.  Those  who  desire  to  become 
teachers  in  a  Dutch-native  school  must  follow  a 
post-graduate  course  of  three  years  in  a  normal 
school  which  was  estabhshed  for  that  purpose  in  1914. 

In  addition,  twelve  normal  schools  have  been 
estabhshed  for  the  training  of  native  assistant 
teachers.  Most  of  these  students  receive  not  only 
tuition  free  of  charge,  but  also  free  medical  attention, 
free  books,  and  a  small  monthly  allowance. 

The  primary  instruction  is  given  in : 

a)  The  people's  schools,  having  a  three-year 
course.  In  191 7  there  were  in  Java  and  Madura 
4,185  of  these  schools,  with  299,516  pupils;  in  the 
outlying  possessions  there  were  1,372  schools  with 
83,127  pupils.^ 

h)  The  native  schools  of  the  second  class  with  a 
five-year  course.     There  were  989  of  these  schools 

^  See  Official  Yearbook  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  igzo. 
[180] 


in  Java  in  19 17,  and  490  in  the  outlying  possessions, 
with  an  attendance  of  142,415  and  72,875  respectively, 

c)  Private  schools,  of  which  there  were  2,506 
in  Insulinde  with  145,505  pupils  in  1917. 

d)  Schools  for  Chinese,  which  number  220  with 
12,636  pupils. 

e)  Schools  for  Arabs,  of  which  there  are  32  with 
1,928  pupils. 

All  told,  therefore,  there  are  about  600,000  children 
receiving  primary  education  throughout  Insulinde. 
The  total  cost  was,  in  1918,  slightly  over  7,000,000 
florins  or  1 1  florins  per  pupil.^  Inasmuch  as  the  whole 
native  population  is  about  40,000,000,  the  expense  is 
only  a  bit  over  18  cents  per  capita  per  year.  That 
this  number  must  be  vastly  increased  in  the  future 
is  evident,^  but  the  government  is  laboring  under 
extraordinary  difficulties.  Ever  since  there  has  been 
a  decided  movement  for  the  uplift  of  the  Oriental 
races,  there  has  come  an  insistent  demand  for  better 
educational  facihties.  The  government  report  very 
aptly  points  out  that  the  population  itself  does  not 
offer  sufficient  intellectual  forces  to  meet  the  needs; 
neither  does  it  furnish  the  necessary  material  means. 

To  bring  large  numbers  of  teachers  from  Holland 
is  almost  prohibitive  on  account  of  the  expense  as 

^  A  florin  or  guilder  at  normal  exchange  is  about  39  cents  in 
American  money. 

'  In  the  Philippine  Islands,  with  a  population  of  ten  million, 
700,000  pupils  are  enrolled  in  the  primary  schools,  while  about  5,000 
students  attend  the  two  universities. 

[181] 


well  as  on  account  of  the  needs  of  the  mother  country. 
Even  now  there  is  difficulty  in  finding  additional 
teachers  who  are  willing  to  teach  in  the  tropics, 
for  it  takes  extraordinary  energy  to  introduce  a 
homogeneous  and  practical  scheme  of  instruction 
among  a  multitude  of  peoples,  with  totally  different 
requirements  and  mental  attitudes. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
an  inherent  difficulty  with  all  goverimient  inter- 
ference in  education  in  the  Indies,  as  in  every  other 
part  of  the  world,  lies  in  the  inclination  to  theorize, 
and  the  disinclination  to  accept  facts  as  they  really 
exist.  The  great  majority  of  the  native  population 
at  the  present  time  is  not  ready  to  offer  fertile  soil  for 
theoretical  education.  Such  education,  if  attempted, 
may  prove  a  boomerang  instead  of  a  blessing. 

Those  who  have  come  in  contact  with  Oriental 
people  will  realize  that  the  education  of  Oriental 
children  by  Occidental  teachers  is  a  difficult  and 
exhausting  task.  The  difficulty  finds  its  root  in  the 
duality  of  mind  of  the  individual.  Education,  to  be 
of  real  value,  must  go  far  beyond  "book  learning." 
It  must  reach  and  improve  not  only  the  reason,  but 
also  the  spirit  and  soul  of  the  pupil.  For  the  lack  of 
better  nomenclature  the  spirit,  soul,  or  conscience 
may  be  called  the  subjective  mind,  while  the  pure 
reasoning  power  may  be  termed  the  objective  mind. 
It  is  quite  possible  to  bring  the  objective  mind  of  the 
Western  teacher  in  harmony  with  the  objective 
mind  of  the  Eastern  pupil  by  means  of  logic  and 

[182] 


reasoning,  especially  when  topics  are  discussed  which 
belong  to  the  exact  sciences. 

Unhappily,  as  soon  as  the  objective  mind  of  such 
teacher  endeavors  to  understand  and  influence  the 
subjective  mind  of  the  pupil,  a  far  more  difficult 
problem  presents  itself.  For  while  the  objective  mind 
takes  cognizance  of  the  objective  world  through  the 
five  physical  senses,  and  its  highest  function  is  that 
of  reasoning  inductively,  deductively,  analytically, 
or  synthetically,  the  subjective  mind  perceives  by 
intuition,  and  is  totally  incapable  of  inductive 
reasoning;  in  other  words,  it  only  "jumps  at  con- 
clusions." The  subjective  mind  cannot  classify  a 
number  of  known  facts  and  reason  from  them  to  a 
logical  conclusion,  as  it  is  able  to  reason  only  instinc- 
tively. 

The  functions  of  the  subjective  mind  are  generally 
divided  into  two  classes:  the  normal  and  the  evolu- 
tionary functions.  Functions  of  the  first  class  are 
manifested  by  what  are  generally  termed  instincts, 
especially  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  the  pro- 
tection of  the  offspring,  and  possibly  the  preservation 
of  human  life  generally.  These  instincts  are  the 
same  among  savage  races  as  well  as  among  civilized 
peoples.  Therefore  the  white  teacher  has  no  difficulty 
in  understanding  this  class  of  impulses  in  his  Eastern 
pupils.  The  difficulty  rests  in  the  practical  impossi- 
bility of  understanding  the  evolutionary  functions 
which  operate  in  the  pupils'  subjective  minds.  These 
are  the  functions  which  are  constantly  active  in  the 

[183] 


mind  of  a  normally  sensitive  person.  They  enable 
him  to  determine  instinctively  what  is  right  and 
wrong  and  urge  him  to  act  accordingly;  they  warn 
him  of  danger,  even  when  there  is  no  sign  to  give 
notice  of  danger  to  the  objective  mind;  and  they 
manifest  themselves  in  various  other  ways.  Although 
always  on  the  alert,  these  impulses  are  held  in  check 
by  the  objective  mind.  They  are  allowed  to  rise 
above  the  threshold  of  consciousness  only  when  the 
occasion  demands  it.  Naturally  these  impulses  are 
far  more  complicated  than  the  purely  normal  or 
animal  impulses. 

While  the  natural  or  animal  instincts  are,  as  we 
have  said,  the  same  among  all  human  beings,  regard- 
less of  their  status  of  evolution  or  their  breeding, 
the  other  evolutionary  impulses  are  very  different 
among  races  which  have  different  standards  and 
forms  of  ci\'ilization.  The  development  of  the  race, 
the  religious  and  moral  teachings  of  the  past,  the 
poHtical  ideals,  all  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on 
the  formation  and  operation  of  that  part  of  the 
subjective  mind.  The  standard  of  right  and  wrong 
is  sure  to  be  materially  different  in  the  two  races. 
There  is  often  a  standard  in  one  race  which  opposes 
a  standard  of  another  race.  Each  race  has  been 
struggling  for  centuries  to  ascertain  the  laws  of  this 
standard  in  order  that  it  may  place  itself  in 
harmony  wdth  them.  But  each  race  may  have  been 
struggling  along  different  Hnes,  and  have  come  to 
different   conclusions.     The    instinctive    conclusions 

[184] 


so  reached,  being  of  slow  growth,  are  consequently 
very  slow  to  change. 

In  youth  especially  impulses  are  strongest.  They 
are  closely  connected  with  the  psychic  phenomena 
of  auto-hypnotism.  Boys  can  play  at  a  train  holdup, 
and  for  the  time  being  really  believe  that  they  are 
either  robbers  or  officers  of  the  law.  Moreover,  a 
child  has  an  almost  uncanny  instinct  for  recognizing 
its  friends  or  enemies,  and  this  has  probably  given 
rise  to  the  saying,  "Never  trust  a  person  whom  chil- 
dren dislike."  The  subjective  mind  of  a  Javanese 
child,  or  of  any  child  of  the  Far  East,  is  distinctly, 
peculiarly,  and  decidedly  Oriental.  It  is  largely 
hereditary  and  greatly  influenced  by  the  generations 
of  teaching  a  moral,  mental,  and  political  philosophy 
which  is  radically  different  from  that  of  the  white 
man.  When  the  child  reaches  school  age  his  subjective 
mind  is  active  and  alert;  it  acts  along  Oriental  lines. 
It  is  true  that  for  a  few  hours  each  day  he  listens  to 
the  teachings  of  the  white  teacher,  but  the  balance 
of  the  day  and  night  he  is  again  among  his  own 
people — people  endowed  with  a  psychology  that  the 
child  intuitively  understands,  but  which  opposes  the 
psychology  of  the  teacher. 

A  successful  teacher  is  one  who  is  loved  by  his 
pupils,  not  feared;  who  understands  their  joys  and 
sorrows  and  sympathizes  with  them.  With  white 
children,  the  white  teacher  has  only  to  remember 
his  own  youth.  He  knows  that  the  home  influence 
will  be  along  the  same  lines  as  his  own,  and  so  he 

[185] 


has  a  good  basis  for  understanding.  The  children 
instinctively  understand  him,  even  though  their 
objective  minds  may  not  be  able  to  follow  his  reason- 
ing. He  can  hardly  hope  for  such  understanding  from 
the  Oriental  child.  There  is  an  utter  difference  in 
psychology,  and  a  resulting  difference  in  the  operation 
of  the  subjective  minds  of  the  teacher  and  pupil, 
which  stops  the  flow  of  mental  intercourse.  This 
makes  teaching  so  exhausting  to  the  white  pedagogue, 
and  often  most  difHcult  for  the  native  child. 

It  has  been  observed  in  the  United  States  that  a 
literary  or  theoretical  education,  no  matter  how 
simple,  given  to  a  race  which  is  not  prepared  to 
receive  it,  has  the  opposite  result  from  the  one 
aimed  at.  Instead  of  improving  the  race,  it  causes 
deterioration.  Instead  of  awakening  new  qualities 
in  the  individual,  it  destroys  the  good  qualities  already 
existing.  In  Insulinde  it  generally  takes  the  form  of 
indifferent  mental  development  accompanied  by  pom- 
pousness  and  laziness,  and  a  destruction  of  simple 
industry  and  love  of  work. 

What  the  Javanese  population  needs  at  the 
present  time  more  than  anything  else  is  a  system  of 
simple  schools  in  manual  training,  where  not  only 
the  mind,  but  especially  the  hand  and  the  character 
of  the  children  can  be  trained,  and  where  it  may  be 
forcibly  impressed  on  their  minds  that  work  well 
done  by  the  hand  is  of  more  value  than  work  poorly 
done  by  the  mind.  Such  schools  should  be  estab- 
lished in  the  cities  and  in  the  countrysides. 

[i86] 


Native  farming  is  generally  done  now  along 
ancient,  even  prehistoric  lines.  Schools  of  agri- 
culture are  badly  needed,  where  the  young  may  be 
taught  in  their  native  language  improved  farming 
methods,  and  especially  improved  horticulture.  This 
sort  of  education  for  years  to  come  will  prove  a  very 
much  greater  blessing  than  any  theoretical  teaching. 
At  the  present  time,  as  soon  as  a  native  has  acquired 
a  smattering  of  education,  he  is  inclined  to  go  to  the 
cities,  where  the  number  of  petty  clerks  is  constantly 
increasing.  Settled  there,  he  exhibits  what  he  believes 
to  be  the  emblem  of  superior  development,  that  is, 
silk  socks  and  fine  boots. 

Manual  training  schools,  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural schools,  however,  will  teach  the  nations  to 
become  good  mechanics  and  first-class  farmers, 
instead  of  third-rate  clerks.  In  this  matter  of  educa- 
tion, the  Italian  proverb,  "Qui  va  piano,  va  sano, " 
may  well  be  observed.  The  Chinese  far  surpass  the 
Javanese  in  handicrafts  and  general  industries,  but 
the  natives  offer  splendid  material  for  development  as 
mechanical  experts,  etc.,  if  they  are  given  the  oppor- 
tunity.    The  need  is  for  education  along  these  lines. 

The  government  is  doing  its  very  best,  but  it 
seemed  to  the  writer  during  his  travels  that  individual 
enterprise  could  do  far  more.  Great  wealth  is  acquired 
by  individual  corporations  and  captains  of  agri- 
cultural industry  in  the  Indies,  but  the  idea  of  large 
educational  benefactions,  such  as  prevail  in  the 
United  States,  has  not  yet  penetrated  to  any  marked 

[187] 


extent  in  these  regions.  To  accelerate  these  mental 
processes,  it  might  not  be  amiss  for  the  government 
to  levy  on  all  surplus  profits  of  plantations  a  special 
sur-school  tax,  out  of  which  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  neighborhood  schools. 

Possibly  the  government  might  also  create  a 
permanent  school  fund  out  of  a  new  surcharge  on 
the  lease  money  of  government  lands  (so-called 
canon),  as  many  of  the  states  in  the  American  Union 
obtained  permanent  educational  funds  from  the  sale  of 
"school  lands,"  that  is  such  lands  of  the  public 
domain  as  were  specially  set  aside  for  this  purpose. 
The  government  is  now  fully  aHve  to  the  importance 
of  this  question,  and  it  looks  as  if  it  would  have  the 
most  unanimous  support  of  public  opinion  in  the 
establishment  of  such  funds.  The  dissenters  would 
probably  be  those  immediately  affected,  those  who 
are  hide-bound  in  the  sacred  traditions  of  inviolate 
property  rights,  which  unkindly  economists  claim  al- 
most always  involve  the  exploitation  of  the  weaker 
by  the  stronger. 

THE   VARIOUS   GOVERNMENTAL  ACTIVITIES 

The  government  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies 
is  in  every  respect  a  modern  government  functioning 
smoothly  as  such.  Consequently  it  has  engaged  in  a 
great  many  governmental  activities.  While  some  of 
these  activities  are  beneficial  both  to  the  white  man 
and  to  the  natives,  others  are  especially  devised  for 
the  sole  benefit  of  the  latter. 

[i88] 


As  the  two  races  live  together  in  harmony  and 
freely  intermingle,  it  is  not  easy  to  draw  an  exact 
line  of  cleavage,  for  that  which  is  to  the  best  interest 
of  one  class  must  at  least  indirectly  benefit  the  other. 

There  is  a  smaller  category  of  government  activi- 
ties or  lack  of  activities  which  one  hears  occasionally 
criticized  by  American  and  other  foreign  observers. 
These  are:  (a)  salt  monopoly;  (b)  the  state  monop- 
oly of  opium;  (c)  insufficient  instruction  in  modern 
languages — especially  Dutch;  (d)  penal  sanction. 
The  mixed  activities  are  principally:  (a)  admin- 
istration of  railroads  and  tramways;  (b)  postal, 
telegraph,  and  telephone  service;  (c)  road  system; 
(d)  construction  and  maintenance  of  harbors  and 
roadsteads  and  the  fostering  of  shipping;  (e)  the 
development  of  foreign  trade;  (/)  mining  operations ; 
(g)  water-power  and  electric  service;  (h)  police 
system;    (i)  prison  system. 

The  purely  native  activities  may  be  enumerated 
as  follows:  (a)  native  banking,  including  pawn- 
shops; (6)  native  health  regulations;  (c)  irrigation; 
{d)  civil  veterinary  service;  (e)  fisheries;  (/)  for- 
estry. 

For  the  sake  of  an  orderly  discussion,  we  will 
first  treat  the  "objectionable  activities." 

a)  The  salt  monopoly. — It  is  often  stated  that  a 
salt  monopoly  is  an  antiquated  evil  brought  up  to 
date,  for  it  levies  a  tax  on  one  of  the  basic  necessaries 
of  the  people,  a  form  of  taxation  which  is  considered 
with  small  favor  by  all  sound  economists  of  today. 

[189] 


It  is  claimed  with  a  great  deal  of  force  that  sea 
salt  is  a  free  gift  provided  by  nature  in  her  great 
bounty;  that  man  cannot  live  without  salt;  and  that 
where  nature  has  supplied  it  in  large  quantities,  as 
in  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  surrounded  by 
the  sea,  it  is  a  mistaken  fiscal  policy  to  prevent 
the  inhabitants  from  availing  themselves  of  it. 
In  most  countries  where  these  monopolies  have 
formerly  existed,  they  have  been  abandoned.  While 
in  some  of  the  outlying  possessions  the  manufacture 
of  salt  is  still  unrestricted,  aU  over  Java  and  Madura, 
and  in  most  districts  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  the 
government  monopoly  is  extant. 

Salt  is  mostly  manufactured  on  the  island  of 
Madura,  by  a  process  of  evaporating  the  sea-water. 
The  product  is  sold  in  blocks,  which  are  made  in 
factories  of  this  island,  while  the  sale  is  carried  on 
in  behalf  of  the  government  by  European  and  native 
salt  vendors. 

Importation  of  salt  in  the  monopolized  districts 
is  prohibited,  excepting  refined  table  salt  (which 
is  almost  exclusively  for  European  table  use),  and 
that  which  is  required  for  the  preservation  and 
packing  of  foodstuffs. 

The  best  that  can  be  said  about  this  monopoly 
is  that  the  revenue  is  comparatively  small.  In  19 18, 
the  total  gross  receipts  were  sHghtly  over  17,000,000 
guilders,  being  equivalent  at  a  normal  rate  of  exchange 
to  about  $7,000,000.  The  expenditures,  including 
wages  paid  mostly  to  natives,  were  slightly  over 

[190] 


$3,000,000,  leaving  a  balance  for  the  whole  monopoly 
of  a  little  over  $4,000,000.  Inasmuch  as  about 
35,000,000  natives  were  affected  by  this  monopoly, 
they  contributed  on  account  of  the  same  about  eight 
American  cents  per  head  a  year.  During  19 18, 
124,442  tons  of  salt  were  sold,  making  the  price  about 
$56  a  ton,  or  2.8  cents  a  pound  in  American  money. 
This  kind  of  salt  in  California  markets  retails  for 
3  cents  a  pound. 

While  the  very  material  difference  in  living 
standards  existing  in  these  countries  must  be  con- 
sidered, still  one  cannot  say  that  this  monopoly  is 
as  oppressive  as  some  people  endeavor  to  represent  it. 

b)  The  opium  trade. — Whether  or  not  it  is  moral 
for  a  government  to  regulate  a  traffic  in  opium  or 
in  any  other  vice,  and  incidentally  make  a  profit 
from  such  traffic,  is  a  question  which  is  as  old  as  the 
civilized  world.  The  same  principle  is  involved  in  the 
regulation  and  Hcensing  by  state  law  of  prostitution, 
the  sale  of  alcoholic  liquors,  tobacco,  and  narcotics. 

State  regulation  almost  invariably  includes  the 
payment  of  state  fees,  for  instance,  the  municipal 
saloon  license  fees  prevailing  in  almost  every  munici- 
pality in  the  world;  the  internal  revenue  fees,  a 
federal  tax  levied  by  the  American  government  on 
the  sale  of  Hquors,  which  was  in  full  force  and  effect 
up  to  the  time  of  the  adoption  recently  of  the  Eight- 
eenth Amendment  of  the  Constitution,  and  from 
which  the  United  States  government  derived,  and 
is  still  deriving,  a  large  income;  the  monopoly  in 

[191] 


the  sale  of  cigarettes,  especially  in  France,  etc. 
Those  in  favor  of  this  state  regulation  generally 
use  this  line  of  argument:  That  prohibition  does  not 
prohibit;  that  in  the  case  of  prostitution,  attempted 
prevention  scatters  its  votaries  from  a  well-defined 
vice  district,  under  the  supervision  of  the  police 
authorities,  broadcast  through  the  residence  district; 
that  in  addition  it  does  away  with  sanitary  inspection 
and  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  growth  of  loath- 
some diseases;  that  it  gives  degenerate  males  an  added 
opportunity  for  pandering,  and  venal  police  officers 
an  opportunity  for  blackmailing. 

In  the  case  of  strong  liquors,  it  is  claimed  that 
they  induce  a  large  number  of  otherwise  law-abiding 
citizens  to  become  law-breakers;  that  for  good  liquor, 
active  poison  is  substituted;  that  instead  of  a  well- 
regulated  liquor  traffic,  from  which  the  government 
derived  an  income,  there  are  substituted  bootlegging 
and  other  illicit  sales  of  spirits,  on  a  large  or  small 
scale,  from  which  only  the  criminal  element  derives  an 
income;  and  so  on.  The  proponents  of  these  regula- 
tions almost  invariably  call  their  opponents  abolition- 
ists and  fanatics. 

Those  who  are  opposed  to  regulation  boldly 
declare  that  it  is  immoral  for  any  government  to 
derive  an  income  from  the  exploitation  of  the  vices 
of  its  subjects  or  citizens;  that  there  can  be  no  com- 
promise with  evil,  and  if  such  compromise  is  attempted 
only  more  evil  can  result  therefrom;  that  the  only 
way  to  wean  people  away  from  these  vices  is  to 

[192] 


educate  them  to  do  without  entirely;  that  such 
education  will  be  forever  impossible  as  long  as  the 
government  countenances  the  traffic. 

The  regulation  of  the  opium  traffic  in  the  Nether- 
lands East  Indies,  as  a  matter  of  course,  does  not 
escape  a  similar  controversy.  All  that  can  be  said  is 
that  the  government,  so  far,  has  found  it  advisable 
to  exercise  such  control.  The  use  of  opium  was 
brought  to  Insulinde  from  China  by  the  large  Chinese 
population  Hving  there,  and  has  spread  from  the 
Chinese  to  some  of  the  natives.  The  first  effort 
to  regulate  this  traffic  was  made  by  leasing  the  right 
to  retail  the  drug  in  the  islands  of  Java  and  Madura. 
This  system,  however,  gave  rise  to  many  abuses, 
principally  because  the  lessees  encouraged  the  use  of 
opium.  As  soon  as  the  government  ascertained  that 
the  means  employed  defeated  the  very  aim,  it  put 
a  stop  to  this,  and  took  the  opium  traffic  into  its 
own  hands.  This  method  was  gradually  extended 
until  1913,  when  the  government  controlled  the  trade 
of  practically  the  whole  archipelago. 

At  the  present  time  the  importation  and  sale 
of  opium  can  take  place  only  through  the  govern- 
ment. Most  of  the  raw  material  is  obtained  in  Ben- 
gal. The  prepared  opium  is  packed  in  tubes,  which 
cannot  be  opened  without  being  damaged,  and  which 
cannot  therefore  be  refilled  with  inferior  opium  by 
illicit  traders. 

The  government  has  done  away  with  all  com- 
missions and  other  profits  of  the  salesmen,  who  now 

[193] 


receive  a  regular  monthly  salary.  They  refuse  to 
recognize  any  intermediaries,  who  may  have  an 
interest  in  the  encouragement  of  the  habit,  and 
therefore  the  extension  of  the  sale. 

A  great  many  regulations  are  in  force,  all  tending 
gradually  to  reduce  the  use  of  opium.  While  these 
regulations  differ  so  as  to  meet  local  conditions  and 
necessities,  in  most  places  in  the  Indies  private 
persons  are  prohibited  from  having  any  opium  in 
their  possession  at  all,  even  though  they  obtain 
the  same  through  the  monopoly.  In  other  districts 
special  licenses  are  required,  and  in  some  places  there 
is  a  so-called  prohibitive  area  where  no  one  can 
have  any  opium. 

One  of  the  regulations  is  that  under  no  condition 
can  opium  be  sold  to  young  people  under  eighteen 
years  of  age.  The  resale  of  government  opium  is 
strictly  forbidden  and,  furthermore,  in  order  to 
limit  the  use,  the  price  for  which  government  opium 
is  sold  is  continuously  raised.  Ever  since  the  control 
was  put  into  effect,  the  number  of  shops  and  dens 
where  the  population  has  the  opportunity  of  using 
this  drug  has  diminished.  In  addition,  the  sale  and 
use  of  morphine,  cocaine,  and  other  surrogates  are 
put  under  rigid  control. 

The  regulation  of  the  use  of  opium  in  Oriental 
countries  is  about  as  difl&cult  as  the  regulation  of 
the  use  of  strong  liquors  in  Western  countries.  To 
give  one  instance :  When,  some  years  ago,  the  govern- 
ment endeavored  to  stop  the  importation  of  opium 

[194] 


into  the  island  of  Banka,  where  the  great  tin  mines 
are  situated,  operated  almost  entirely  by  Chinese 
coolies,  25,000  of  these  coolies  promptly  struck  and 
refused  to  take  up  their  tools  again  until  they  could 
resume  the  use  of  the  drug,  and  no  other  labor  was 
available  or  obtainable. 

At  the  present  time  the  government  is  using  its 
best  efforts  to  prevent  the  importation  and  illicit 
sale  of  opium,  while  endeavoring  at  the  same  time 
gradually  to  reduce  the  legal  use  of  opium.  Perhaps 
finally  the  whole  matter  will  come  to  a  system  of 
rigidly  supervising  the  sale  and  the  use  of  the  drug, 
so  that  only  those  who  are  hopeless  addicts  can 
secure  it.  Then  the  habit  may  eventually  disappear, 
or  be  brought  down  to  a  negligible  factor. 

c)  The  language  question. — The  language  ques- 
tion has  had  the  very  serious  consideration  of  govern- 
ment officials  and  other  thoughtful  inhabitants  of 
Insulinde  for  several  decades  past.  Formerly  the 
white  man  was  almost  invariably  opposed  to  teaching 
the  native  any  European  language.  In  fact  a  native 
was  not  allowed  to  address  a  Dutch  official  or  mer- 
chant in  the  Dutch  language  if  he  mastered  that 
language,  which  he  rarely  did.  While  this  attitude 
may,  in  the  light  of  our  present  advanced  ideas, 
look  constrained,  to  say  the  least,  still  it  must  be 
considered  that  it  is  only  for  the  last  fifty  years 
that  the  thought  has  penetrated  the  consciousness 
of  the  white  man  that  colonies  are  not  primarily 
existent  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country,  but 

[195] 


that,  on  the  contrary,  the  mother  country  has  very 
great  duties  to  discharge  toward  her  colonies,  and  the 
native  inhabitants  have  inaKenable  rights,  which 
must  be  respected  and  fostered. 

If  it  be  remembered  that  only  sixty  years  ago 
the  institution  of  slavery  was  still  flourishing  in 
these  United  States,  that  the  history  of  the  treatment 
of  the  Indian  or  red  man  of  even  later  date  is  any- 
thing but  pleasant  to  read,  then  it  is  not  difficult 
to  reach  the  conclusion  that  the  attitude  of  the 
Hollanders  toward  their  wards  in  the  colonies  was 
not  particularly  lacking  or  behind  the  times,  but  was 
really  quite  consistent  with  the  general  trend  of  the 
white  man's  thoughts.  Fortunately  there  has  come 
a  very  marked  change  in  this  general  attitude,  and 
today  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  government, 
fully  aroused  to  its  responsibilities  toward  the  natives, 
is  doing  all  that  could  be  desired. 

The  desirability  of  teaching  the  natives  the 
language  of  the  mother  country  has  been  a  much- 
debated  question.  By  the  proponents  of  this  idea 
it  is  claimed  that  such  a  course  can  only  give  rise 
to  loyalty,  and  draw  closer  the  tie  which  binds  the 
mother  country  to  its  colonies;  and  that  it  will  open 
the  large  cultural  field  of  the  old  and  modern  Nether- 
lands civilization,  first  to  educated  natives,  and  later 
to  the  rank  and  file  of  the  native  population. 

There  is  an  equally  large  class  of  thoughtful 
people  strenuously  opposed  to  this  idea.  By  them 
it  is  claimed  that  language  is  a  powerful  element 

[196] 


in  the  general  evolution  of  a  people;  that  the  Nether- 
lands government  would  assist  in  making  the  natives 
second-class  Hollanders  by  introducing  the  Nether- 
lands language,  while  it  should  endeavor  to  assist 
them  in  becoming  first-class  Orientals;  that  a  native 
language  should  be  adopted,  and  the  people  should 
be  allowed  to  evolve  along  their  natural  Hnes,  for 
which  a  knowledge  of  their  own  tongue,  folklore, 
traditions,  etc.,  is  essential. 

It  is  submitted  that  while  both  arguments  contain 
a  great  deal  of  merit,  they  also  contain  several 
elements  which  do  not  seem  to  stand  the  acid  test 
of  close  scrutiny.  By  all  means  let  each  people 
remember  the  native  tongue;  let  the  younger  ones 
cultivate  it,  and  cherish  their  native  traditions. 
Teach  them  in  their  native  tongue  the  dignity  of 
all  useful  endeavor,  including  manual  labor. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  by  those  who 
oppose  the  introduction  of  the  Dutch  language  that 
it  is  an  inherent  characteristic  of  intellectuals, 
belonging  to  a  people  who  are  numerically  small, 
to  attach  an  exaggerated  importance  to  the  matter 
of  language.  Just  because  a  nation  is  small  in  num- 
bers, the  instinct  of  self-defense  makes  its  members  un- 
consciously cherish  their  own  language  as  something 
sacred,  and  instils  in  them  the  firm  belief  that  all 
their  cultural  interests  are  firmly  bound  up  in  that 
language,  and  that  their  noble  traditions  of  the 
past  would  lose  a  vast  amount  of  value,  if  not  perish 
entirely,  when  not  expressed  in  the  native  tongue. 

[197] 


The  constant  fear  hovering  over  them  that  the 
smaller  nation  will  lose  its  identity  and  will  be 
merged  into  a  larger  nation  unconsciously  affects 
their  thoughts  as  to  their  language,  a  language 
in  which  they  see  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  their  inde- 
pendence and  separate  entity.  This  feeling  not  only 
is  natural,  but  is  patriotic  in  the  best  sense.' 

Now  the  fact  remains  that  several  people  may 
speak  the  same  language  and  still  enjoy  a  radically 
different  psychology.  We  have  a  very  strong  example 
of  this  in  the  English  language.  The  fact  that  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  use  the  same  lan- 
guage does  not  seem  in  any  way  to  interfere  with  the 
separate,  distinct,  and  different  evolutionary  forces 
at  work  in  each  nation,  or  tend  to  make  out  of  the 
American  people  second-class  English  instead  of  first- 
class  loyal  Americans. 

It  is  therefore  submitted  that  if  the  Javanese  and 
other  natives  and  groups  of  people  in  Insulinde 
would  speak  the  Netherlands  language  it  would  not 
necessitate  their  evolution  into  second-class  Hollan- 
ders, but  to  the  contrary  might  accelerate  their 
evolution  in  becoming  first-class  Dutch-speaking  Ori- 
entals, or  Oriental  Netherlanders. 

'  We  see  this  especially  among  the  members  of  the  "National- 
ist" party  in  South  Africa,  of  which  General  Hertzog  is  the  able 
and  distinguished  leader.  This  National  party  is  really  the  Boer  or 
Dutch  party,  while  the  South  African  party,  of  which  such  Boers 
as  General  Botha  and  General  Smuts  were  and  are  the  leaders,  is 
the  real  national  party  of  the  South  African  Union,  desiring  to 
evolve  a  true  South  African,  as  contradistinguished  from  a  Dutch- 
man or  an  Englishman. 

[198] 


Under  modern  conditions  it  is  hardly  possible  for 
a  people  inhabiting  an  archipelago  (only  geographi- 
cally an  entity)  whose  inhabitants  speak  sixty  different 
tongues  and  have  as  many  or  more  different  tribal 
laws  and  tribal  customs,  to  evolve  along  racial 
lines,  for  this  would  give  a  confusion  of  interests 
compared  to  which  the  notorious  confusion  of  inter- 
ests of  the  Balkan  States  would  be  a  complete 
harmony. 

Eventually  it  will  be  necessary  to  introduce  one 
universal  language.  The  selection  of  this  language 
is  not  a  simple  question.  Disregarding  the  opinion 
that  the  teaching  of  the  Netherlands  language  would 
result  in  making  inferior  Netherlanders  of  the  native, 
there  is  a  more  serious  and  valid  objection. 

Dutch  is  essentially  a  Western  tongue  and  difficult 
for  an  Oriental  to  acquire.  It  is  not  a  natural  language 
for  a  dessaman.  For  him  it  is  much  easier  to  obtain 
a  good  knowledge  of  Malay,  for  this  is  already  the 
lingua  franca  of  trade  in  the  archipelago.  Javanese, 
Sundanese,  etc.,  do  not  seem  to  have  any  difficulty 
in  mastering  this  tongue.  Along  the  coasts  it  is  now 
the  established  agency  of  communication. 

Possibly  the  best  solution  will  be  to  teach  the 
Malay  language  to  the  great  mass  of  the  natives  whose 
average  school  years  for  decades  to  come  will  be  neces- 
sarily short.  Instruction  in  the  Holland  language  may 
be  confined  to  native  chiefs,  such  as  regents  and  weda- 
nas,  who  already  speak  Malay,  and  to  those  natives 
who  apply  for  a  higher  education, 

[199] 


At  present  Dutch  is  taught  in  all  native  schools 
of  the  first  class,  and  in  the  so-called  Holland-native 
schools  this  language  is  used  entirely  as  the  medium 
of  imparting  knowledge. 

d)  The  penal  sanction  (poenale  sanctie). — The 
penal  sanction  is  a  criminal  penalty  attached  to  the 
breaking  of  a  civil  labor  contract.  The  regulations 
bearing  on  this  question  have  two  aims,  viz.:  (i)  to 
provide  the  employers  in  sparsely  populated  districts 
with  labor,  thereby  making  the  "winning  of  Insu- 
linde's  West"  possible,  and  (2),  to  provide  the 
contract  laborer  with  the  necessary  protection, 
and  put  him  under  qualified  governmental  super- 
vision. To  accomplish  these  purposes,  the  rights 
and  obhgations  of  employer  and  employee  are  care- 
fully specified  in  the  so-called  coolie  ordinances,  under 
which  labor  contracts  become  operative. 

According  to  the  terms  of  these  ordinances,  cooHe 
contracts  may  be  made  for  a  period  not  longer  than 
three  years,  and  these  contracts  must  furthermore 
comply  with  all  the  requirements  enacted  for  the 
benefit  of  the  protection  of  the  cooHes.  Otherwise 
they  become  void. 

The  employer  obligates  himself  to  treat  the 
laborer  humanely  and  justly,  to  pay  his  wages 
regularly,  to  furnish  him  free  and  adequate  lodging, 
to  give  him  free  medical  treatment,  including  the 
necessary  medicine,  to  supply  him  with  an  ample 
amount  of  pure  water  for  bathing  as  well  as  drinking 
purposes,   and  to  return  the  laborer,   free  of  any 

[200! 


expense,  to  the  place  whence  he  came,  either  after 
the  expiration  jof  his  term  of  contract,  or  prior  to 
that  time  if  the  contract  is  voided  for  a  valid  reason. 

It  is  expHcitly  provided  that  in  no  event  shall  an 
employee  be  required  to  work  more  than  ten  hours  a 
day,  except  under  extraordinary  circumstances. 

An  unjustifiable  breach  of  the  contract  by  the 
employer  is  punished  by  fine. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  contract  laborer  or  contract 
coolie,  assumes  certain  obligations,  that  is,  to  work 
the  regular  hours,  to  obey  all  reasonable  orders  in  con- 
nection with  the  work,  not  to  leave  the  employ  of 
his  master  before  the  expiration  of  the  contract,  etc. 

As  the  Oriental  laborer  is  notoriously  improvident, 
as  he  is,  almost  without  exception,  unable  to  respond 
to  any  civil  judgment  for  damages,  and  the  imposition 
of  pecuniary  fines  would  invariably  prove  to  be  an 
empty  proceeding,  he  can  be  punished,  either  by  fine 
or  imprisonment,  when  he  deliberately  and  without 
good  cause  breaks  the  terms  of  his  contract.  Such 
punishment,  however,  cannot  be  pronounced  by 
the  employer  or  his  deputy,  but  is  solely  imposed 
by  a  judge  of  competent  jurisdiction,  to  whom  all 
such  cases  are  referred,  and  whose  word  is  final  in 
the  premises.  The  coolie  is  personally  brought  before 
the  judge,  confronted  with  his  accuser,  and  given  an 
opportunity  to  explain  his  side  of  the  question. 

The  recruiting  of  these  coolies  almost  always 
takes  place  on  the  islands  of  Java  and  Madura, 
which  are  densely  populated,  if  not  overpopulated. 

f20ll 


The  laborers  are  intended  for  the  estates  in  the 
"outlying  possessions"  (by  this  is  meant  all  the 
islands  except  Java  and  Madura),  and  the  recruit- 
ing also  is  done  strictly  under  government  control. 
No  one  can  engage  in  the  business  of  recruiting 
laborers  without  having  a  special  permit  from  the 
government.  Before  a  contract  can  be  closed  the 
laborer  must  have  a  medical  examination  to  show 
that  he  is  physically  fit  for  the  work  for  which  he 
has  engaged  himself,  and  a  doctor's  certificate  must 
be  issued  in  each  individual  case.  Without  this 
certificate,  and  without  an  additional  one  signed  by 
the  proper  government  authority,  in  which  it  is 
cited  that  the  recruit  has  been  made  aware  of,  and 
that  he  agrees  to,  the  clauses  of  the  labor  contract, 
no  contract  is  valid.  In  fact  a  recruiting  commissioner 
is  stationed  in  each  port  of  embarkation,  and  he  has, 
to  a  large  extent,  the  same  duties  to  discharge  toward 
these  contract  laborers  as  the  United  States  Shipping 
Commissioner  in  an  American  port  has  toward  the 
sailors  of  all  ships  leaving  the  port. 

Before  a  contract  is  finally  signed,  the  laborers 
are  repeatedly  told  exactly  to  what  they  are  binding 
themselves,  and  that  they  are  free  to  return  to  their 
respective  homes  without  any  obstacles  being  put 
in  their  way,  if  they  make  known  to  the  authorities 
that  they  have  changed  their  minds  and  do  not 
wish  to  sign  the  contracts. 

The  contract  laborers  are  transported  at  the 
expense  of   the  employer   from   Java,  generally  to 

[202] 


the  northeast  coast  of  Sumatra,  by  specially  equipped 
steamers,  each  of  which  must  have  a  licensed  physician 
on  board.  Upon  arrival  at  Deli,  Sumatra,  they  are 
placed  in  rooming-houses  which  are  Kkewise  specially 
equipped,  and  which  may  be  compared  with  the 
immigrant  hotels  maintained  by  the  large  steamship 
companies  in  European  ports  to  house  immigrants 
bound  for  the  United  States.  Here  they  are  once 
more  under  medical  super\'ision,  and  those  who  are 
finally  passed  proceed  to  the  estate  which  has  con- 
tracted for  their  labor.  The  others  are  returned  at 
the  employer's  expense. 

As  a  general  rule  the  first  contract  runs  for 
three  years.  After  three  years  the  contract  laborer 
becomes  a  so-called  free  laborer  and  can  renew  his 
contract  if  he  so  desires,  and  this  is  generally  done 
for  a  shorter  period,  and  for  considerably  higher 
wages.  This  is  possible  and  logical  for  two  reasons: 
in  the  first  place  the  laborer  has  become  skilled  in 
his  particular  work,  and  secondly  the  employer  finds 
the  man  on  the  ground  and  does  not  have  to  go  to  all 
the  expense  of  immigration. 

Should  the  laborer  not  desire  to  renew  his  con- 
tract, he  is  returned  at  the  expense  of  the  employer, 
to  the  place  whence  he  came,  and  this  is  done  under 
the  supervision  of  government  officials. 

Most  of  the  employers  take  excellent  care  of 
their  laborers,  with  the  result  that^'on  some  of  the 
estates  from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  the  men  desire 
re-employment  as  free  laborers  at  the  end  of  their 

[203] 


term  of  contract.  A  great  many  others  remain  on 
the  estate  to  estabHsh  themselves  as  small  farmers 
or  retail  store-keepers,  and  others  again  as  domestic 
servants.  They  then  become  permanent  residents — 
colonists  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 

The  United  States  Rubber  Company,  which 
operates  large  rubber  estates  near  Medan,  Sumatra, 
obtains  its  labor  supply  in  this  manner. 

The  opponents  of  the  system  claim  that  the 
authority  vested  in  the  Netherlands  judge,  to  sentence 
a  man  to  the  workhouse  or  the  prison  because  he 
refuses  to  perform  the  work  he  has  contracted  for, 
on  the  complaint  of  the  employer,  smacks  of  slavery. 

The  extremists  claim  that  it  is  an  anachronism, 
something  which  should  never  be  tolerated  in  these 
enlightened  times.  The  "antis"  are  very  outspoken 
in  their  denunciations. 

The  "pros"  are  equally  firm  in  their  justifications. 
They  claim  that  it  is  ridiculous  to  speak  of  "slave 
driving. "  One  may  just  as  well  consider  the  truant 
officer  of  the  pubHc  schools  in  the  United  States  or 
any  other  advanced  country  a  "slave  driver,"  for 
this  truant  ofiicer  forces  girls  and  boys  against  their 
will  to  attend  school  and  do  mental  work  so  necessary 
to  their  future  development  and  happiness.  The 
"pros"  add  that  these  Oriental  laborers  have  only. 
just  arrived  at  the  stage  of  mental  development 
where  a  truant  ofiicer  is  necessary.  Moreover, 
they  say  the  great  industries  could  not  exist  without 
this  penal  sanction.    The  "antis"  argue:  "Are  human 

[204] 


®    < 


rights  of  less  importance  than  property  rights?" 
The  truth,  of  course,  hes  in  the  middle,  between 
these  arguments. 

If  the  principal  answer  to  the  ''antis"  were  the 
statement  which  is  generally  made — that  the  mag- 
nificent industries  which  have  been  developed  in 
Sumatra  cannot  exist  without  the  importation  of 
this  contract  labor,  and  that  this  imported  contract 
labor  would  be  totally  ineffective  and  prohibitively 
expensive  without  the  penal  sanction  in  the  labor 
contracts  or  coolie  ordinances,  the  inevitable  rejoinder 
would  be  that  under  modern  conditions  such  industries 
have  no  right  to  exist,  and  that  it  would  be  far  better 
that  they  perish  than  that  human  liberty  be  violated, 
especially  when  this  \^olation  takes  place  with  the 
encouragement  of  an  enlightened  government,  such 
as  the  Netherlands  East  Indian  government  claims 
to  be,  and  in  fact  is.  This  would  certainly  be  the 
American  rejoinder,  and  the  fact  that  certain  Ameri- 
can concessionaires  in  the  island  of  Sumatra  are 
availing  themselves  of  the  same  methods  would  in 
no  way  weaken  American  criticism,  but,  if  anything, 
emphasize  it.  For  was  it  not  almost  identically  the 
same  argument  by  which  slavery  was  justified  for 
centuries  all  over  the  world,  the  southern  parts  of 
the  United  States  not  excepted? 

But  there  is  quite  another  phase  of  the  situation 
which  well  merits  serious  consideration.  On  account 
of  religious  and  social  prejudices,  the  Javanese  are 
slow,  almost  averse  to  emigration.    They  desire  to 

[205] 


live  and  die  in  the  village  which  gave  them  birth, 
even  if  the  village  becomes  overcrowded  and  the 
lands  do  not  produce  enough  for  the  ever-growing 
population.  In  addition,  Oriental  inertia  exercises  a 
potent  influence  on  all  of  their  decisions. 

The  marked  difference  between  the  immigration 
to  the  new  lands  of  the  Western  states  and  territories 
of  the  United  States  and  the  immigration  of  the 
Javanese  to  the  new  lands  of  their  West  is  the  religious 
aspect  of  each  movement.  American  and  European 
pioneers  were  not  only  fired  by  the  hopes  of  bettering 
their  industrial  and  social  conditions,  but  they  were 
sustained  by  their  Christian  behef,  by  hope,  trust,  and 
faith.  With  a  buoyant  spirit  they  went  into  the 
wilderness  to  cut  out  that  great  Empire  of  the  West 
which  since  then  has  challenged  the  admiration 
of  the  world,  and,  while  they  went  with  ax  and  gun 
in  hand,  they  nevertheless  took  with  them  as  a 
priceless  heritage  of  their  forefathers  the  joyful 
convictions  of  their  Christian  faith.  Soon  in  their 
trail  followed  their  churches,  their  little  schoolhouses, 
in  fact  "the  little  schoolhouse  on  the  hill"  became 
the  center  of  pioneer  activities,  wherever  a  small 
community  was  estabhshed.  The  itinerant  preachers, 
the  circuit  riders,  the  priests  of  the  small  churches, 
the  school  teachers,  all  did  their  part.  It  was  the 
hopeful  gospel  of  Christ,  born  of  the  white  man's 
energy,  which  winged  its  way  westward.  One  can 
say  this  truthfully  without  being  unmindful  of  the 
fact    that    this    civilization,    precipitated    into    the 

[206] 


wilderness,  was  accompanied  by  many  faults  and 
drawbacks,  and  without  forgetting  that  the  white 
man's  injustice  to  the  native  children  of  the  plains 
and  forests  was  often  painful,  and  that  with  him  came 
whiskey  bottles  and  many  diseases  of  body  and 
soul.  These  were  unfortunate  details  which  neces- 
sarily detract  from  the  general  loveliness  of  the 
picture  of  the  winning  of  the  West. 

It  is  quite  different,  however,  with  this  Javanese 
immigration  toward  the  wild  lands  of  Sumatra  and 
Borneo.  Wliile  the  necessity  of  emigration  is  con- 
siderably greater  there  than  it  ever  was  in  the  eastern 
states  of  the  Union,  no  popular  impulse  breeds 
that  intense  desire  for  betterment  of  conditions. 
When  once  launched  on  the  roads  to  the  wilderness, 
the  white  man  knew  that  Paul's  dictum,  "He  who 
will  not  work  shall  not  eat, "  would  be  the  inflexible 
law  of  his  existence.  But  in  the  Indies  matters  are 
different.  The  needs  of  the  people,  on  account  of 
climatic  conditions,  are  very  shght.  They  do  not 
need  to  provide  against  hard  winters  sure  to  come. 
Shoes,  stockings,  are  hardly  ever  worn  by  the  average 
man  or  woman.  Clothing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Children  go  nude  until  they  are  about  six  years  old. 
Everybody  is  notoriously  improvident.  Saving  is  a 
rare  virtue  over  there. 

The  ground  is  fertile,  and  with  the  expenditure  of 
very  little  effort  a  living  is  made.  If  they  do  emigrate 
they  do  not  have  to  fear  the  attack  of  nomads,  as  the 
white  man  did,  for  they  know  they  are  protected  by 

[207] 


their  Dutch  overlords,  so  everything  is  made  easy  for 
them  in  their  new  home,  both  by  nature  and  by  the 
government. 

But  their  faith  is  not  Christian.  While  in  times  of 
great  mental  disturbances  their  religion  appears  to 
instil  in  its  followers  a  bravery  bordering  on  the  fanati- 
cal, it  does  not  give  to  its  votaries  that  sustained 
strength  of  the  Christian  faith  and  hope.  For  coloni- 
zation on  their  own  initiative  they  lack  the  quiet, 
persistent  moral  stamina  so  necessary  for  the  success 
of  such  an  undertaking. 

The  limit  of  the  ability  of  even  a  fertile  soil,  such  as 
the  island  of  Java  possesses,  to  accommodate  an  ever- 
increasing  population  has  about  been  reached.  Even 
now  much  rice  must  be  imported,  and  if  it  were  not  for 
the  considerable  financial  returns  derived  from  the 
cultivation  of  export  articles  on  a  large  scale,  under 
the  direction  of  the  white  planter,  and  along  the  most 
advanced  scientific  lines,  the  nourishing  of  this  vast 
and  teeming  population  of  Java  would  present  a  very 
great  problem  even  now.  According  to  the  last  cen- 
sus, Java  had  a  population  of  over  33,000,000  people, 
that  is  about  259  people  to  the  square  kilometer,  or 
710  to  the  square  mile. 

There  are  on  an  average  not  more  than  thirty  per- 
sons to  the  square  mile  in  Sumatra,  and  in  fact  on  the 
east  coast,  where  the  large  rubber  and  tobacco  planta- 
tions are  located,  the  inhabitants  are  a  fraction  less 
than  twenty-seven  to  the  square  mile.  In  other  words 
the  population  of  Java  is  twenty-four  times  as  dense 

[208] 


as  that  of  Sumatra.  In  addition,  much  of  the  soil  of 
Sumatra  is  still  virgin  land,  and  the  question  of  over- 
population, which  will  soon  be  as  pressing  in  Java  as  it 
is  in  Japan,  is  easily  solved  by  the  opportunities  offered 
in  Sumatra.  No  one  can  doubt  the  duty  of  an  enlight- 
ened government  in  directing  its  surplus  flow  of  popu- 
lation into  the  most  advantageous  channels.  For  the 
overflow  of  the  island  of  Java,  the  outlying  possessions 
are  close  at  hand.  The  white  man's  rule  has  made 
these  islands  safe  for  immigration  and  has  checked  the 
depredations  of  tribes  formerly  savage  or  semi-savage, 
and  of  wild  animals,  such  as  tigers,  etc.  Large  tracts 
of  land  are  available  now,  where  human  endeavor  has 
never  been  exercised  before.  There  are  some  small 
islands  where  hardly  one  human  being  has  ever  lived. 
All  of  the  islands  have  practically  the  same  climatic 
conditions  as  Java,  and  the  Javanese  can  thrive  in 
them  in  large  colonies.  These  lands  beckon  the  immi- 
grant. Here,  as  in  the  United  States,  the  "winning  of 
the  West"  offers  a  most  wonderful  opportunity  for 
human  endeavor  and  betterment  of  conditions. 

But  Insulinde  has  no  hardy  class  of  white  pioneers, 
who,  with  ax  in  hand,  can  go  into  the  forest,  or  spurred 
and  booted  can  ride  their  ponies  over  the  plains,  whirl- 
ing their  lariatas  and  singing  their  cowboy  ballads. 
The  climate  does  not  allow  the  white  man  to  exert 
himself  as  he  did  in  Western  United  States.  The 
white  man's  burden  here  is  the  furnishing  of  brains, 
organizing  talent,  technical  skill,  honest  government — ■ 
all  matters  of  which  the  overwhelming  percentage  of 

[209] 


the  natives  are  still  mostly  ignorant.  Much  is  being 
done  to  make  a  change  in  this  condition,  but  it  is  a 
matter  of  evolution,  and  evolution  takes  not  years  but 
centuries. 

The  labor  contracts  are  doing  a  great  deal  to  direct 
colonization  along  the  very  best  lines^  and  to  make  the 
winning  of  these  untamed  regions  possible.  From 
this  standpoint  alone  the  labor  contracts  may  receive 
very  earnest  and  very  favorable  consideration  as  pro- 
viding the  best  means  just  now  available  for  arriving 
at  this  highly  desirable  result.  Eventually  there  may 
be  a  residue  of  such  laborers,  sufficiently  large  in  num- 
ber to  make  further  contracts  unnecessary. 

In  the  meantime  the  government  is  endeavoring  to 
settle  the  outlying  possessions  by  means  of  direct 
colonization.  A  successful  experiment  has  been  made 
in  part  of  Sumatra,  where  in  the  year  1918  a  Javanese 
colony  was  located,  consisting  of  2,339  families,  or 
about  ten  thousand  people.  Gradually  immigration  is 
increasing.  The  new  colonists  are  allowed  transporta- 
tion to  their  destination,  advances  are  made  to  each 
family  for  the  price  of  tools,  seeds,  etc.,  and  a  regular 
credit  and  banking  system  is  established.  Eventually 
this  liberal  system  may  result  in  doing  away  with  labor 
contracts  entirely,  and  in  relieving  the  overpopulation 
in  Java. 

A  gradual  increase  of  this  free  emigration,  and  a 
decrease  of  the  penal  sanction  system  will  solve  this 
vexing  question.  For  the  present  the  government 
must  remain  satisfied  with  encouraging  free  coloni- 

[210] 


zation,  at  the  same  time  rigidly  protecting  the  contract 
laborers,  who,  by  the  way,  earn  a  wage  about  four  times 
as  high  as  the  wages  in  their  native  Java.  To  judge 
by  their  alacrity  in  renewing  their  contracts  they  are, 
generally  speaking,  very  satisfied  with  their  lot  in  life. 
With  apologies  to  Mr.  Bairnsfather,  the  writer, 
cannot  refrain  from  saying:  "He  who  knows  a  better 
'ole,  let  him  go  to  it. " 

GOVERNMENTAL  ACTIVITIES   FOR   BOTH  WHITES 
AND  NATIVES 

a)  Railroads. — There  are  both  government  and 
privately  owned  railroads,  tramways,  and  automobile 
ser\dce  in  Insulinde. 

The  first  state  railroad  constructed  in  Java  was 
opened  to  the  public  on  May  i6,  1878.  It  was  a  small 
section  between  Surabaya  and  Pasuruan  of  about 
thirty-six  miles.  Since  then  the  system  has  been 
extended  until  there  are  now  found  fifteen  hundred 
miles  of  standard-gauge  and  sixty  miles  of  narrow- 
gauge  railroads  built  by  the  government.^ 

In  Sumatra  there  have  been  constructed  about  six 
hundred  miles  of  standard-  and  narrow-gauge  rail- 
roads, and  extensions  are  continuously  under  way. 

In  19 1 8,  on  the  fifteen  hundred  miles  of  broad- 
gauge  railroad  in  Java,  over  fifty  milUon  passengers 
were   carried,   and   more   than  six  million   tons  of 

•  These  measurements  are  in  accordance  with  the  standards 
accepted  in  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  being  the  same  as  those 
accepted  in  the  Empire  of  Japan  and  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 
The  railroad  between  Samarang  and  Djokjakarta  is  the  same  as 
what  would  be  called  standard-gauge  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

[211] 


merchandise  were  transported.  The  net  revenue  of 
these  railroads  was  about  sixteen  million  dollars.  In 
the  same  year  the  railroads  on  the  west  coast  of 
Sumatra  transported  about  three  and  a  half  million 
passengers  with  seven  hundred  and  ten  thousand  tons 
of  merchandise. 

In  addition  to  the  state  railroads  there  are  private 
railroads  and  tramways.  The  first  to  be  opened  was 
the  private  railroad  between  Samarang  and  Djokja- 
karta in  1873.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  consider- 
ably extended.  While  it  is  by  no  means  as  important 
as  the  state-controlled  railroads,  still  it  renders  an 
important  service. 

For  instance,  in  1918  the  private  roads  between 
Samarang  and  Djokjakarta  transported  over  four 
million  passengers  and  one  miUion  tons  of  merchan- 
dise, while  the  short  Deli  railroad,  situated  near  Deli, 
Sumatra,  carried  four  and  a  half  million  passengers 
and  close  to  one  million  tons  of  merchandise.  It  is 
safe  to  predict  that  both  private  and  state  railroads 
will  be  continuously  extended,  and  will  slowly  replace 
the  very  extensive  auto  service  which  is  now  carried 
on  in  connection  with  these  Hues. 

The  railroads  and  steam  tramways  are  very  exten- 
sively patronized  by  the  natives,  these  constituting  the 
vast  majority  of  the  passengers.  Every  train  seems 
to  be  loaded  to  capacity  with  them,  and  generally 
they  are  a  happy,  chattering,  prosperous-looking  lot. 

All  the  minor  officials,  such  as  assistant  train 
masters,  assistant  station  masters,  station  masters  of 

[212] 


small  stations,  conductors,  and  the  like,  are  natives, 
and  appear  to  discharge  their  duties  well. 

b)  Postal,  telegraph,  and  telephone  service. — The 
postal  service  was  inaugurated  in  1862,  and  originated 
as  a  government  monopoly.  In  1877  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  joined  the  Universal  Postal  Union.  From 
that  date  the  service  has  been  steadily  extended, 
including  postal  money  collections  since  1881,  foreign 
and  domestic  money  orders  since  1892,  and  parcel  post 
service  since  1893. 

Special  postal  conventions  were  entered  into  with 
Great  Britain  in  1905,  with  the  Straits  Settlements  in 
191 1,  with  the  Australian  Commonwealth  in  191 2,  and 
with  China  in  19 19,  all  of  which  tended  to  facilitate 
the  dispatching  of  special  mails. 

Internally  the  mail  service  is  regulated  partly  on 
the  city  dehvery  system  and  partly  on  the  rural  deliv- 
ery system.  Places  not  situated  on  seaboard,  or  on 
railways,  or  tramways,  are  served  by  automobiles, 
post-carts,  pack-horses,  mail-carriers,  on  foot,  etc. 
Even  the  smallest  places,  away  up  in  the  mountains, 
are  included  and  served  by  this  system. 

A  very  low  tariff  has  been  adopted  for  printed 
matter,  while  the  usual  European  or  American  tariff 
prevails  for  postal  cards,  letters,  and  the  like. 

Five  times  every  two  weeks  the  foreign  mails  are 
dispatched,  or  about  once  every  three  days. 

In  1 918  the  post-offices  in  Insulinde  handled 
1,697,436  letters  for  foreign  countries,  besides  262,197 
post  cards,   419,735  pieces  of  printed  matter  and 

[213] 


84,981  samples,  all  outgoing  mail.  In  the  same  year 
the  service  handled,  as  incoming  mail  from  abroad, 
2,380,531  letters,  343,954  postal  cards,  2,089,191  pieces 
of  printed  matter  and  55,393  samples,  besides  money 
orders,  etc. 

The  domestic  mail  service  carried  during  the  same 
year  14,170,650  paid  letters,  8,928,738  postal  cards, 
6,637,488  service  letters  (official  business),  16,055,338 
newspapers,  and  223,730  samples.  In  addition  it 
handled  1,088,561  service  letters  and  1,857,914  general 
pieces  of  registered  mail,  1,794,446  postal  money  orders 
to  the  value  of  $78,170,000,  and  574,385  samples. 

Except  for  the  higher  executive  positions  the  vast 
majority  of  the  employees  engaged  in  this  service  are 
natives. 

The  first  telegraph  line  completed  in  Java  was  a 
short  Hne  between  Batavia  and  Buitenzorg  in  1858. 
Since  that  time  lines  have  been  extended  in  every 
direction,  while  cables  are  uniting  the  principal  islands. 

In  19 1 8  there  were  about  sixteen  thousand  miles  of 
telegraph  fines  and  about  six  thousand  miles  of  sub- 
marine cable  in  service.  There  has  been  a  cable  con- 
nection between  Java  and  Singapore  since  1870,  one 
between  Java  and  Australia  since  1872,  between 
Penang  and  Medan  since  1891,  and  between  Batavia 
and  Cocos  Island  since  1908.  There  has  also  been  a 
cable  from  Menado  via  Yap,  to  Shanghai  and  Guam, 
and  from  there  to  San  Francisco  since  1904.  There 
has  been  one  between  Pontianak,  Borneo,  and  Saigon 
since  191 6. 

[214] 


Besides  several  minor  radio  stations,  one  was 
erected  in  Bandong,  Java,  in  1919,  for  direct  wire- 
less connection  with  the  Netherlands.  In  191 2  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies  joined  the  International 
Radio-Telegraph  Convention  of  London. 

In  the  year  1918,  1,919,419  private  domestic  tele- 
grams were  handled,  besides  113,146  govermnent 
messages,  while  incoming  and  outgoing  telegrams  to 
the  number  of  424,770,  exclusive  of  366,799  press 
messages,  were  received  or  sent. 

In  1883  a  beginning  was  made  with  the  construc- 
tion of  telephone  lines  by  private  companies,  but  it 
soon  became  apparent  that  the  main  trunk  lines  could 
be  successfully  operated  only  by  the  government. 
Since  1901  the  main  lines  have  been  so  operated,  and 
this  service  is  also  being  continuously  extended. 

The  telephone  lines  reach  out  in  every  direction. 
In  1 9 18  the  service  covered  approximately  70,000 
miles,  with  189  regular  telephone  offices.  The  net 
profits  of  the  government  were  only  $200,000,  but  an 
excellent  service  was  maintained.  Of  long  distance 
calls  alone  there  were  close  to  eight  hundred  thousand. 

c)  Roads. — It  is  impossible  to  say  too  many 
laudatory  things  about  the  roads  in  InsuUnde  gener- 
ally, and  Java  in  particular.  It  is  the  only  Oriental 
country  visited  by  the  writer  where  a  person  can 
travel  with  comfort  for  days  and  days  by  automobile. 
Some  of  the  roads  are  simply  superb  in  the  boldness  of 
their  construction  and  the  mode  of  their  upkeep.  The 
writer   traveled   by   auto    from   Padang,   southwest 

[215] 


Sumatra,  to  Medan,  in  northeast  Sumatra,  over  a 
highway  about  five  hundred  miles.  This  road  goes 
via  Fort  de  Kock,  Kota  Nopan,  Sibolga,  Taruntung, 
Bahge,  Toba  Lake,  and  Pematang  Sir  An  tar.  It 
skirts  ravines,  crosses  lofty  mountains,  and  here  and 
there  the  roadbed  is  hewn  out  of  the  sheer  rock.  The 
scenery  is  unbelievably  beautiful,  and  the  countryside, 
with  its  ever-changing  views  of  mountains,  streams, 
valleys,  dessas  of  different  tribes,  virgin  forests,  all 
imsurpassingly  interesting. 

The  automobile  traveled  at  an  average  speed  of 
twenty-five  to  thirty  miles  an  hour,  covering,  with  the 
necessary  halts,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  a 
day.  We  generally  traveled  from  5 :  30  in  the  morning 
until  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  In  some  of  the  lar- 
ger places  there  were  good  country  hotels,  while  in  the 
smaller  places  passagrahans  (government  rest  houses) 
were  provided.  These  passagrahans  are  very  clean, 
comfortable,  and  reasonable  in  price.  They  are  gen- 
erally kept  by  one  or  more  natives,  principally  for 
government  travelers,  but  on  proper  appHcation  to  the 
authorities  private  travelers  are  also  made  wel- 
come. 

A  road  is  now  being  constructed  around  Toba  Lake 
and  will  be  finished  some  time  this  year.  In  19 19  the 
road  ended  at  Balige,^  on  the  lake,  and  one  had  to  cross 

'  Balige  is  a  fisherman's  village  which  is  well  worth  visiting. 
Here  the  Battaks  may  be  seen  in  their  native  kampongs  where  the 
houses  are  elevated  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground 
on  paUngs,  and  somewhat  resemble  boats.  The  space  underneath 
is  occupied  by  livestock,  etc.,  during  the  night,  but  during  the  day 

[216] 


the  water  by  motor-boat,  a  journey  of  several  hours, 
and  continue  on  the  other  side  toward  Pematang  Sir 
An  tar. 

The  traffic  on  the  roads,  especially  in  Java,  is 
very  heavy,  and  continuously  increasing.  Besides  the 
European  automobile  travel,  one  encounters  a  multi- 
tude of  natives  and  other  Orientals  on  foot,  on  horse- 
back, in  pony-carts,  and  the  like. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  sights  to  see,  every 
morning,   these  roads  leading  to  the  larger  places 


one  may  see  women  sitting  there  in  the  shade,  doing  their  weaving 
on  huge  frames. 

The  controller  in  charge,  Mr.  P.  Scheffer,  showed  the  same 
courtesy  and  firmness  in  dealing  with  the  natives  as  seemed  to  be 
possessed  by  all  the  civil  servants  that  one  meets  during  one's 
travels,  be  it  in  lovely  Java,  or  in  the  remotest  wilderness  of  the 
outlying  possessions.  His  comfortable  house  was  situated  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  the  kampong  of  the  Battaks,  a  tribe 
which  only  a  comparatively  few  years  ago  were  man-eaters.  His 
charming  wife  seemed  on  an  excellent  footing  with  the  women  of 
the  kampong.  They  all  greeted  her  with  courtesy  wherever  she 
went  her  way  as  our  guide.    There  was  no  trace  of  fear. 

It  is  only  a  short  time  since  the  frequent  sound  of  a  trumpet 
announced  the  arrival  of  a  troop  of  Dutch  cavalry,  sent  to  investigate 
and  punish  some  barbaric  outrage. 

As  we  crossed  Toba  Lake  in  the  motor-boat  of  the  controller,  he 
suddenly  stood  erect  and  focused  his  field  glasses  on  a  speck  on  the 
water.  In  the  native  tongue  he  gave  a  few  short  orders  and  soon 
the  boat  shot  in  the  direction  of  this  speck.  As  we  approached, 
the  outline  of  a  large  canoe  became  distinguishable.  It  was  paddled 
by  about  thirty  natives,  and  carried  several  passengers  in  gay  native 
costumes,  lending  color  to  the  scene.  With  a  shrill  blast  of  the 
whistle,  our  boat  sped  away  without  interfering  with  the  natives. 

The  controller  read  a  question  in  the  writer's  mind  and  explained 
that  he  was  looking  for  probable  rice  smugglers.    Rice  was  short 

[217] 


literally  covered  with  natives  bringing  their  wares  to 
the  pasars  (markets).  Motor  driving  becomes,  for 
several  miles,  as  great  an  art  as  driving  through  the 
traffic  in  a  busy  American  city. 

Formerly  the  roads  were  entirely  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  central  government.  They  were  there- 
fore state  roads.  Now,  within  the  municipalities,  the 
local  administrations  must  care  for  the  streets  and 
roads.  Outside  of  the  municipalities  the  provincial 
councils  are  gradually  being  intrusted  with  their  care. 


at  that  time,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  keep  the  natives  from  export- 
ing it,  as  there  would  be  the  dire  result  of  famine  prices,  and  possibly 
real  famine  afterward.  In  that  district,  as  in  many  others,  the 
exportation  of  rice  was  strictly  prohibited,  in  order  to  protect  the 
natives  against  their  own  follies,  but  tempted  by  higher  prices  they 
tried  to  smuggle  it  out. 

The  writer  inquired  if  it  were  possible  to  protect  the  native 
against  his  own  follies.  The  controller  smiled  and  said,  "Our  first 
sworn  duty  is  to  be  the  elder  brother  of  these  people,  to  guide  them 
and  advise  them.  We  try  to  be  just,  and  we  enforce  the  laws, 
because  we  believe  them  to  be  just,  too." 

These  men  often  lead  a  very  lonesome  life  in  the  wilderness. 
It  is  especially  difficult  for  the  wives  and  children,  deprived  of  many 
advantages  which  they  wish  for  as  much  as  anyone.  But  there  is 
much  work  to  do  in  Insulinde,  and  the  men  are  wonderfully  coura- 
geous. 

The  writer  looked  at  the  kindly  but  stern  face  of  this  young 
controller,  then  at  the  small  red,  white,  and  blue  boat  flag  of  the 
Netherlands,  floating  gaily  over  the  waters  of  Toba  Lake;  he  looked 
at  the  rapidly  disappearing  canoe  of  the  Battaks,  singing  as  they 
paddled,  who  onl}^  a  few  years  ago  had  been  savages  and  occasionally 
cannibals;  he  thought  of  that  small  country  on  the  North  Sea, 
where  the  people  were  forever  battling  with  the  elements — the 
seas  and  skies — and  then  verily  understood  the  advice  of  Coen, 
"Never  despair,  for  great  work  is  still  to  be  done  in  the  Indies!" 

[218] 


It  is  planned  that  by  1927  this  work  will  be  entirely 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  local  city  and  county  authori- 
ties. But  the  government  by  no  means  intends  to 
relinquish  all  supervision.  There  is  a  general  road 
plan  for  Java,  and  the  local  plans  must  conform  with 
this  and  supplement  it. 

Today  the  roads  have  been  extended  everywhere. 
They  are  not  makeshifts,  but  permanent  macadamized 
highways,  with  reinforced  concrete  bridges,  culverts, 
etc.,  of  the  newest  and  best  designs.  In  North  Cele- 
bes (Province  of  Minahassa)  the  plans,  when  completed, 
will  account  for  three  hundred  miles  of  first-class  roads; 
in  South  Celebes  for  seventy  miles;  in  BaH  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles;  in  Central  Timor  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles,  while  on  the  large  island  of  Sumatra 
fifty-four  roads  have  been  projected,  most  of  them 
already  finished  or  in  the  course  of  construction.  The 
total  expense  will  be  close  to  thirty  millions;  their  total 
length  twenty-seven  hundred  miles.  All  this  is  on  an 
island  still  partly  inhabited  by  half-savage  tribes  and 
only  recently  emerging  to  the  knowledge  of  better  and 
higher  Hving. 

d)  Harbors,  roadsteads,  and  shipping. — The  care 
of  the  harbors  and  roadsteads,  and  also  with  that  the 
care  of  foreign  and  domestic  shipping,  has  had  the  full 
attention  of  the  goverrmient  for  many  years;  but 
especially  in  late  years  problems  of  great  magnitude 
have  presented  themselves. 

In  former  centuries  it  was  not  difficult  to  take  care 
of   the   inter-island   and   foreign   shipments.     Some 

[219] 


places,  like  Tjilatjap,  Java,  had  natural  harbors,  but 
as  shipping  was  carried  on  in  very  small  vessels,  of 
light  draught  (judging  by  modern  standards),  the 
mouths  of  rivers  and  creeks  could  be  used  everywhere. 
When  shippers  began  to  use  larger  vessels,  it  was  still 
possible  to  use  sheltered  stretches  of  water  near  the 
river  mouths.  These  stretches  were  variously  shel- 
tered by  small  islands,  coral  reefs,  and  the  like,  and 
a  lighterage  system  was  maintained  from  the  ships  to 
the  shores.  While  this  is  still  done  in  some  places, 
foreign  commerce  has  so  much  expanded  that  new 
means  had  to  be  devised. 

The  combined  coasthne  of  these  islands  is,  of 
course,  emormous.  Someone,  loving  calculations,  has 
figured  that  it  exceeds  in  length  the  circumference  of 
the  earth. 

In  1918  there  arrived  at  the  various  harbors  and 
roadsteads  a  total  of  112,900  ships.  This  includes 
large  and  small  steamers,  sailing  vessels,  and  lighters, 
with  a  net  capacity  of  62,171,000  cubic  meters.  The 
total  value  of  the  exports  carried  in  these  ships  was, 
in  1 916,  about  $350,000,000,  and  the  total  value  of 
imports,  $200,000,000. 

The  largest  harbors  in  Java  are  Tandjong-Priok 
(Batavia)  and  Surabaya.  The  harbor  of  Tandjong- 
Priok  (Batavia)  is  a  system  of  harbor  basins  con- 
structed since  1877.  In  various  years  thereafter  it 
was  improved  and  added  to.  The  harbor  is  connected 
by  a  canal,  suitable  for  small  vessels,  with  Batavia 
proper  at  a  distance  of  about  six  miles.     In  191 7  the 

[220] 


second  inner  harbor  was  completed,  and  a  third  inner 
harbor  is  under  construction.  This  last  will  admit 
ships  drawing  thirty-six  feet  of  water.  The  harbor  of 
Tandjong-Priok  is  well  worth  visiting  and  studying. 
Fine  railroad  accommodations  are  immediately  adjoin- 
ing, and  model  quarters  for  native  laborers  and  dock- 
workers  have  Kkewise  been  constructed. 

Besides  a  prow  harbor,  Surabaya,  which  is  the 
principal  shipping  point  for  East  Java,  is  provided 
with  an  excellent  and  safe  roadstead.  Since  1910  very 
important  works,  such  as  a  broad  breakwater,  ware- 
houses, etc.,  have  been  constructed.  The  outer  quay, 
from  the  north  pier,  called  the  Rotterdam  Quay,  is 
thirty-six  hundred  feet  long,  with  a  water  depth  of 
forty-four  feet,  while'  the  inner  quay,  called  the 
Amsterdam  Quay,  is  twenty-four  hundred  feet  long, 
and  admits  ships  with  a  draft  of  twenty-five  feet- 
Convenient  railroad-tracks  have  been  constructed, 
and  a  magnificent  harbor,  with  all  modern  facilities, 
has  been  created  here. 

Among  the  other  large  harbors  in  Java  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Samarang,  with  its  magnificent 
lighterage  harbors,  docks,  warehouses,  and  roadsteads. 
Through  this  a  large  commerce  flows,  mostly  derived 
from  Central  Java  and  the  principalities  of  Djokja- 
karta and  Surakarta. 

In  the  outlying  possessions  we  find  the  harbor  of 
Makassar,  on  the  island  of  Celebes,  the  Sabang  harbor, 
on  the  island  of  Sabang,  the  Emma  harbor,  Padang, 
and  the  harbor  of  Belawan,  Deli,  the  last  two  on  the 

[221] 


island  of  Sumatra.  There  are  numerous  smaller  har- 
bors throughout  the  archipelago. 

Shipping  has  also  the  attention  and  encouragement 
of  the  Home  and  Colonial  Government,  although  it  is 
almost  entirely  in  private  hands.  The  Netherlands 
Steamship  Company,  the  Rotterdam-Lloyd,  the 
Ocean,  the  Java- China- Japan  Line,  and  the  Royal 
Dutch  Packet  Company  are  the  principal  steamship 
companies  doing  foreign  and  inter-island  shipping. 
In  1 918  there  arrived  under  the  Netherlands  flag 
4,104  steamers;  under  foreign  flags  3,360,  and  the 
same  number  (4,104)  departed  under  Dutch  flag,  and 
3,257 departed  under  foreign  flag.^  Next  to  the  Neth- 
erlands shipping  interests  the  British  are  the  most 
important.  While  in  191 1  only  15  ships  under  the 
Japanese  flag  arrived  in  Insulinde,  this  number  had 
increased  to  229  in  1918. 

Ocean  trafiic  with  the  United  States  has  likewise 
increased  enormously,  and  is  participated  in  by  the 
Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  the  Robert  Dollar 
Company,  both  of  San  Francisco,  and  the  Clan  Line 
and  Independent  Steamship  Company  of  New  York. 

Netherlands  steamship  companies  are  now  main- 
taining two  direct  routes  to  the  United  States,  one 
called  the  Java-Pacific  Line,  the  ships  of  which  are 
plying  between  the  Colonies  and  San  Francisco  and 
other  Pacific  ports;  and  the  other, known  as  the  Java- 
New  York  Line,  which  goes  by  way  of  Durban,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  from  Batavia  to  New  York.     The 

'  All  ships  over  1,000  tons  net. 
[222] 


Royal  Packet  Company,  besides  maintaining  a  direct 
service  to  Australian  ports,  sends  its  ships  between 
all  inter-island  points.  It  has  a  contract  for  carrying 
the  inter-island  mail,  and  one  hundred  and  one 
steamers  fly  its  home  flag.  Regular  service  is  also 
maintained  by  the  Java-Bengal  Line,  the  Java-South 
American  Line,  and  the  Java- An  twerp-Hamburg  Line. 

e)  The  development  of  foreign  trade. — The  govern- 
ment maintains  a  division  of  commerce,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Industries,  and  Commerce.' 

This  Department,  working  along  general  lines, 
occupies  itself  principally  with  the  gathering  of  data 
and  statistics,  the  furnishing  of  information,  etc.  It 
maintains  two  sample  rooms  in  the  United  States,  one 
in  New  York  and  one  in  San  Francisco,  with  other 
sample  rooms  and  commercial  exhibits  in  Japan, 
Australia,  and  South  Africa. 

The  government  has  likewise  founded  chambers 
of  commerce,  seven  in  Java  and  five  in  the  outlying 
possessions.  It  pubhshes  a  most  interesting  weekly, 
in  which  market  reports,  lists  of  importers  and  ex- 
porters, and  other  valuable  information  are  given.^ 

•  The  chief  of  the  Dmsion  of  Commerce  of  this  department  is 
Mr.  E.  de  Kruyfi,  who  represented  the  Netherlands  East  Indian 
government  at  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition  at 
San  Francisco.  It  was  principally  due  to  his  abilitj^  and  tireless 
energy,  that  the  exhibit  of  Insulinde  was  a  marked  success  at  that 
great  fair. 

'  Private  interests  have  formed  commercial  organizations 
called  "Handels  Vereenigingen,"  commerce  associations,  which  are 
likewise  doing  very  effective  work.  These  organizations  are  very 
similar  to  the  local  boards  of  trade,  or  chambers  of  commerce,  in  the 
United  States. 

[223] 


Furthermore,  it  maintains  a  regular  registration  office 
for  trade  and  factory  marks,  and  gives  foreign  trade- 
marks adequate  protection  when  properly  registered. 

/)  Mining  operations. — There  is  a  general  mining 
service  which  includes  many  activities,  such  as  geo- 
logical surveying,  prospecting,  and  research  work,  all  of 
a  mineralogical  and  metallurgical  nature.  The  service 
publishes  a  Year  Book  containing  valuable  information. 

The  government  mines  coal  at  Sawah  Loentoh, 
Tandjong  (Sumatra),  and  at  Pulu  Laut  (Borneo); 
tin  in  the  island  of  Banka;  and  silver  and  gold  at  Ben- 
kulen,  Sumatra. 

Connected  with  the  mining  office  at  Batavia  is  a 
mineralogical  and  geological  museum,  open  to  all 
interested  parties.  Private  mining  companies  are 
encouraged  by  the  grant  of  mining  concessions  on 
reasonable  terms. 

g)  Water-power  and  electricity. — The  government's 
activities  in  this  branch  of  the  service  are  controlled 
by  the  Department  of  Water-Power  and  Electricity. 
This  bureau  was  instituted  in  191 7.  Originally  the 
problems  involved  were  studied  for  the  purpose 
of  the  possible  electrification  of  the  state  railways. 
Since  that  time  the  scope  of  the  service  has  been  much 
enlarged,  and  the  whole  problem  has  been  taken  in 
hand,  including  concessions  concerning  hydraulic 
power,  the  supervision  of  water-power  works,  etc. 

The  great  hydrauHc  energy  of  Insuhnde  still  lies 
dormant,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  different  islands.  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  central  office  estabHshed  at  Ban- 

[224] 


dong  to  develop  this  dormant  power  in  the  interest 
of  the  state  and  of  private  industry.  This  office  has 
three  divisions :  the  Di\dsion  of  Electricity,  the  Division 
of  Building,  and  the  Division  of  Hydrotechnical  Power. 

Two  great  completed  water-works  have  already 
been  put  in  operation,  while  the  work  of  locating  the 
great  sources  of  water-power  in  the  outlying  posses- 
sions has  the  active  attention  of  the  bureau. 

The  work  done  by  this  bureau  is  highly  scientific 
and  technical  as  well  as  practical,  and  this  department 
promises  to  develop  into  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  government's  activities.  The  work  is  done  so 
effectively  that  there  is  very  little  occasion  for  "water 
litigation,"  which  has  been  so  vexing  to  the  owners 
and  promoters  of  hydraulic  projects  in  many  coun- 
tries. The  ancient  rights  of  the  natives  to  water  for 
their  rice  lands  are  scrupulously  respected. 

According  to  a  very  rough  estimate  which  does 
not  include  the  smaller  islands,  and  the  as  yet  little 
known  Dutch  Guinea,  the  minimum  capacity  of 
hydrauhc  power  to  be  developed  in  Insulinde  is 
5,500,000  horse-power.^ 

The  Netherlands  East  Indian  government  is  very 
alert  to  ascertain  the  newest  developments  in  scientific 
industrial  fields.  Its  trained  scientists  are  constantly 
visiting  foreign  countries  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
foreign  methods  and  comparing  them  with  those 
applied  in  the  colonies. 

'See  Sluyiers'  Monthly  of  November,  1920,  "Present  and 
Future  Utilization  of  Hydraulic  Power." 

[225] 


This  ser\dce  is  no  exception  to  the  rule.  The  direc- 
tor in  charge,  Engineer  P.  A.  Roelofsen,  visited  the 
United  States  within  the  last  year,  and  carefully 
studied  the  most  advanced  American  methods,  several 
of  which  he  appUed  in  the  Colonies,  after  adjusting 
them  to  local  conditions. 

h)  The  police  system. — The  foregoing  pages  must 
have  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  reader  the  great 
difficulty  under  which  the  government  is  laboring 
properly  to  police  a  country  of  the  extent  and  com- 
plexity of  Insuhnde.  But  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  of  any  modern  government  is  to  find  the  proper 
solution  of  the  policing  question,  and  the  Netherlands 
government  has  apparently  solved  this  question  to  the 
satisfaction  of  natives  and  foreigners  alike. 

To  accompHsh  this  three  classes  of  police  are  main- 
tained : 

1.  The  municipal  pohce  forces,  corresponding  to 
the  city  police  departments  of  most  American  and 
European  towns. 

2.  The  provincial  pohce  force,  corresponding  to 
what  are  designated  as  "county  peace  officers,"  such 
as  deputy  sheriffs,  constables,  and  deputy  constables 
in  the  different  states  of  the  American  Union. 

3.  The  armed  police  corps  which  has  its  counter- 
part in  the  State  Constabulary  maintained  in  Penn- 
sylvania, or  the  Northwestern  Mounted  Police. 

The  municipal  police  functions,  of  course,  in  the 
large  cities.  The  higher  police  officials,  known  as  the 
police  commissioners  and  deputy  commissioners,  are 

[226] 


generally  Netherlanders,  while  the  members  of  the 
department,  detectives,  and  street  police  are  both 
natives  and  whites. 

The  provincial  poHce  corps  consists  largely  of 
natives,  the  heads  being  wedanas,  with  assistant 
wedanas,  juantris  poHce,  detectives,  post  commanders, 
and  general  policemen.  There  is  a  special  school  for 
training  and  graduating  pohce  officers  at  Batavia. 

The  armed  police  corps  consists  of  twenty-two 
divisions,  of  which  three  are  in  Java,  and  nineteen  in 
the  outlying  possessions.  It  is  a  semi-military  organi- 
zation, always  ready  at  the  call  of  the  ci\^l  authorities, 
and  its  main  duty  is  to  secure  peace,  tranquillity,  and 
safety  throughout  the  archipelago.  It  is  under  a 
rigid  miHtary  discipline,  is  commanded  by  retired 
army  officers,  and  its  acti\'ities  cover  a  field  lying 
between  ordinary  pohce  duties  and  the  duties  of  the 
miHtary  forces.  It  is,  however,  entirely  under  the 
ci\dl  branch  of  the  government,  and  has  been  of 
immense  value  to  protect  the  law-abiding  population 
against  raids  or  other  impositions  of  bad  elements. 

i)  The  prison  system. — The  prison  system  is  not 
different  from  that  which  is  maintained  in  the  most 
enlightened  countries.  Unusual  and  cruel  punish- 
ments are  banished.  There  are  several  penal  institu- 
tions scattered  over  the  different  islands,  mostly  for 
natives.  There  is  one  penitentiary  at  Samarang 
exclusively  for  white  prisoners,  while  all  female  pris- 
oners sentenced  for  more  than  one  year  are  incar- 
cerated in  a  special  prison  maintained  at  Samarang. 

[227] 


Since  191 8  there  has  been  only  one  penal  code 
under  which  accused  prisoners  can  be  prosecuted  and 
convicted.  This  is  the  Penal  Code  of  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies,  and  is  operative  for  white  and  native 
people  alike.  Formerly  a  distinction  was  made 
between  the  two  groups  of  inhabitants. 

All  persons  sentenced  to  imprisonment  are  obliged 
to  work.  While  some  of  the  labor  is  performed  in  the 
open,  such  as  coolie  service,  etc.,  other  labor  is  done  in 
shops  provided  for  this  purpose.  Among  the  latter 
are  tailor  and  shoe  shops,  tinsmithies,  bleaching  and 
dyeing  shops,  rubber  and  tile  factories,  sail-making 
and  button-making  establishments,  and  the  like. 

There  are  of  course  a  multitude  of  other  activities, 
in  which  the  government  takes  an  interest,  and  which 
are  beneficial  to  whites  and  natives  alike,  as,  for 
instance,  care  of  the  insane,  encouragement  of  religious 
instruction,  etc.,  but  it  would  be  tiresome  to  examine 
all  these  separately.  We  will  consider  some  of  the 
activities  enumerated  above,  which  are  especially 
designed  to  assist  large  groups  of  natives. 

GOVERNMENT  ACTIVITIES   SPECIALLY  BENEFICLAL 
FOR   THE   NATIVES 

a)  Native  banking. — Oriental  people  are  either 
notoriously  improvident,  or  notoriously  trugal  and 
mercenary.  To  the  former  class  belong  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  native  inhabitants  of  Insulinde.  To  the  lat- 
ter belong  many  of  the  foreign  Orientals  residing  there, 
especially  the  Arabs  and  Chinese.    The  Arabs  in  par- 

[228] 


ticular  are  often  usurers,  and  the  government,  as  a 
paternal  one,  endeavors  to  protect  the  natives  against 
them. 

There  are  at  the  present  time  three  kinds  of  native 
credit  institutions:  (i)  the  village  rice  credit  banks; 
(2)  the  village  cash  credit  banks;  (3)  the  pro- 
vincial, divisional,  or  district  banks.  The  first  are 
owned  by  the  native  communities  where  they  operate, 
but  under  a  set  of  regulations  generally  drawn  up  by 
the  resident  or  other  Netherlands  official.  The  di- 
rectors are  usually  three  farmers  of  the  village,  and 
the  dessa-head  or  native  village  mayor. 

These  little  banks  were  especially  intended  to  take 
care  of  the  storage  of  rice,  to  prevent  local  shortage, 
etc.  As  a  great  deal  of  the  business  was  done  in 
natura,  and  modern  methods  are  now  replacing  the 
older  ones,  these  rice  banks  are  gradually  diminishing 
in  number,  the  regular  credit  banks  taking  their  place. 
In  1918  there  were  still  10,385  rice  banks  in  operation, 
and  they  had  167,122  tons  of  rice  under  their  admin- 
istration. 

The  village  cash  credit  banks  are  slowly  super- 
seding the  rice  credit  banks.  The  funds  are  local 
deposits,  and  the  amounts  borrowed  are  usually  very 
small.  Sometimes  such  banks  take  the  form  of 
co-operative  societies,  and  most  of  them  maintain 
cash  balances  in  the  provincial  banks. 

Although  these  financial  institutions  are  still  in 
their  infancy,  they  are  growing  rapidly  in  importance, 
and  the  time  does  not  seem  to  be  far  distant  when  they 

[229] 


will  be  the  principal  credit  institutions  for  the  small 
warong-keeper,  the  farmer,  and  the  craftsman.  In 
1 91 8  there  were  about  twenty-eight  hundred  of  them 
in  operation  with  various  assets. 

The  provincial,  divisional,  or  district  banks  re- 
semble the  country  banks  in  the  United  States.  The 
directors  are  both  Europeans  and  natives,  some 
drawn  from  official  and  some  from  private  life.  Profit- 
making  by  the  directors  is  barred,  and  the  institutions 
are  run  on  a  strictly  business  basis.  The  tendency  is 
to  eliminate  the  officials  as  quickly  as  possible,  and 
draw  the  directors  entirely  from  the  clientele  of  the 
bank.  Management  of  these  banks  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  director  or  manager,  who  has  a  mixed  native  and 
European  staff. 

The  banks  are  started  with  governmental  aid,  the 
first  capital  being  furnished  by  the  government  as  a 
loan.  Many  of  them  are  still  aided  in  this  manner. 
The  real  capital  is  formed  from  surplus  earnings, 
so-called  "reserves,"  as  the  original  incorporators 
were  not  called  upon  to  put  up  cash  capital,  which  in 
many  cases  would  have  been  impossible. 

In  1 918  there  were  eighty- three  provincial  or 
divisional  banks  in  operation,  with  assets  and  deposits 
of  nearly  thirty  million  guilders. 

In  order  to  foster  the  growth  of  the  banks  the  gov- 
ernment has  instituted  a  central  bank  of  popular 
credit,  generally  known  as  "Central  Cash."  This 
bank  is  located  in  Batavia,  and  works  with  a  capital 
of  five  million  guilders.    The  management  is  intrusted 

[230] 


to  a  director  and  a  supervisory  board.  It  is  really  a 
Reserve  Bank  of  the  popular  credit  banks.  It  not 
only  furnishes  capital  when  necessary,  but  also  gives 
advice  for  the  operation  of  the  local  banks.  In  1918 
the  Central  Cash  Bank  granted  credits  to  sixty-seven 
of  the  subordinate  banks. 

b)  Pawnshops.— In  many  of  the  American  cities 
efforts  have  been  made  to  curb  the  usurious  activities 
of  pawnbrokers.  In  some  places  charitably  inclined 
citizens  have  established  remedial  loan  societies  or 
other  institutions,  where  money  can  be  obtained  in 
small  amounts  at  reasonable  rates  of  interest.  These 
efforts,  no  matter  how  well-meaning,  are  only  pallia- 
tives and  not  cures.  The  government  of  Insulinde 
has  found  a  practical  solution  of  this  vexing  question 
by  making  pawnshop  business  a  state  monopoly. 

The  reorganization  of  this  business  began  in  1903 
and  was  gradually  extended  until  191 7,  when  the  last 
licensed  pawnshop  ceased  to  exist.  No  one  is  now 
allowed  to  make  a  loan  under  one  hundred  guilders 
against  any  pledge,  except  the  official  pawnshop, 
better  called  the  "People's  Loan  Bank  on  Personal 
Property  Pledges. " 

How  great  was  the  necessity  for  such  an  institution 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  1918,  in  the  352  estab- 
lished pawnshops,  44,816,673  individual  loans  were 
made.  The  amount  loaned  was  close  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  million  guilders.  Only  10  per  cent  of  the 
articles  pawned  were  not  redeemed,  and  had  to  be 
sold  at  public  auction.     The  net  profits  to  the  state 

I231] 


were  about  7  per  cent  of  the  amount  loaned/  All 
small  loans  proved  to  be  an  actual  loss  to  the  govern- 
ment, partly  on  account  of  the  hea\y  expense  of  a 
complicated  administration.  The  profits  were  made 
on  the  larger  loans.  The  net  profits  amounted  to  only 
twenty  cents,  Dutch  currency,  on  each  loan.^ 

WTien  unredeemed  articles  are  sold,  the  possible 
surplus  is  kept  for  one  year  at  the  disposal  of  the  bor- 
rower.   After  that  time  it  reverts  to  the  general  funds, 

c)  Native  health  regulations. — Oriental  people  are, 
from  our  Western  standpoint,  notoriously  if  not  hope- 
lessly, insanitary.^  The  health  regulations  of  Insu- 
linde  are  under  the  super\dsion  of  the  Civil  Medical 
Service,  which  is  divided  into:  (i)  the  general  govern- 
mental medical  and  sanitary  supervision;  and  (2)  the 
care  of  the  ill. 

The  first  branch  is  under  the  direction  of  an 
inspector-in-chief,  who  in  turn  is  assisted  by  health 
inspectors.  A  large  staff  of  Netherlands  and  native 
physicians  assists  the  inspectors,  whose  first  duty  is 
the  prevention  of  the  spreading  of  contagious  diseases. 

The  first  line  of  defense  includes  the  harbor  health 
authorities  and  quarantine  stations.     This  quarantine 

'  In  1918  the  profits  amounted  to  about  nine  million  guilders. 

^  Eight  cents  in  American  money. 

3  The  natives  in  Java  wash  often  and  industriously,  but  they 
are  not  particular  as  to  the  water  which  they  use  for  their  ablutions. 
One  often  sees  men  and  women  bathing  in  a  stream  which  neighbor- 
ing towTis  use  as  an  open  sewer.  The  writer  saw  a  native  wash  and 
brush  his  teeth  in  a  stream  while  a  few  feet  above  other  natives 
were  blissfully  responding  to  different  calls  of  nature. 

[232] 


is  not  only  against  foreign  countries,  but  also  inter- 
island.  The  second  line  of  defense  is  the  interior 
health  inspection.  The  service  is  intrusted  with 
stamping  out  local  epidemics,  improvement  of  sani- 
tary conditions,  etc. 

Statistics  of  mortality  are  kept  by  the  district 
physicians  in  charge,  and  as  soon  as  the  charts  show 
an  unusual  rise  in  the  mortality  of  a  district  or  village, 
the  cause  is  investigated. 

At  Weltevreden  a  general  vaccine  and  serum  in- 
stitute is  maintained,  where  various  serums  are  pre- 
pared, including  those  against  hydrophobia,  typhus, 
snake  bites,  tetanus,  dysentery,  cholera,  etc.  In  years 
gone  by  smallpox  was  a  scourge  of  these  islands.  Now 
the  institute  prepares  and  distributes  a  weekly  supply 
of  vaccine  throughout  Insulinde,  which  is  sufficient  to 
keep  the  whole  population  vaccinated  at  proper  inter- 
vals. In  1 918  almost  eight  million  of  the  natives  were 
vaccinated.  Special  native  vaccinators  operate  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Netherlands  and  native  physi- 
cians. In  addition,  a  rigid  pharmaceutical  inspection 
is  maintained  under  the  direction  of  a  graduate 
inspector.  Europeans  as  well  as  natives  fall  under 
the  rules  of  these  different  inspection  services. 

The  second  branch  of  the  service — care  of  the  ill — 
is  fostered  by  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
government  hospitals  and  the  holding  of  polyclinics. 

In  the  smaller  towns  native  hospitals  are  found, 
where  indigent  native  patients  are  treated  free 
of    charge,   while    central    municipal   hospitals    are 

[233] 


maintained  by  the  government  in  Batavia,  Samarang, 
and  Surabaya.  They  compare  favorably  with  great 
modern  medical  institutions.  At  each  a  training 
school  for  native  nurses  is  maintained.  At  Batavia 
and  Surabaya  the  students  find  an  opportunity  for 
practical  training  as  native  physicians. 

d)  Agricultural  information  service. — The  agri- 
cultural information  service  is  maintained  for  the 
purpose  of  disseminating  directly  among  the  native 
farmers  the  knowledge  obtained  by  the  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  other  technical  experimental  institu- 
tions. It  therefore  corresponds  somewhat  to  the 
university  extension  work  done  by  the  agricultural 
colleges  of  the  different  state  universities  of  the 
United  States.  Only  the  service  is  much  more  inten- 
sive and  comprehensive,  coming  into  closer  contact 
with  actual  farmer  problems. 

Insulinde  is  divided  for  these  instruction  purposes 
into  thirty  departments.  At  the  head  of  each  depart- 
ment stands  a  graduate  agricultural  engineer.  The 
staff  of  this  service  is  both  European  and  native.  In 
19 18  the  European  members  consisted  of  nineteen 
agricultural  instructors,  one  adviser,  seventeen  teach- 
ers, and  eleven  overseers,  while  the  native  staff 
consisted  of  forty-nine  instructors  and  eight  em- 
ployees. 

The  service  is  very  close  to  the  people,  instruction 
being  given  right  on  the  ground.  The  officials'  duties 
are  most  comprehensive,  including  advice  to  the 
farmers  on  all  economic  questions,  the  laying  out  of 

[234] 


TERRACED  RICE  FIELDS,  JAVA 


CINCHONA    QUINlNEi  PLANTATION 


nurseries,  the  combating  of  plant  diseases  and  plagues, 
the  establishment  of  experimental  fields,  etc' 

e)  Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  considered  of  such 
importance  that  each  resident  has  the  immediate 
supervision  and  management  of  it  in  his  residency. 
The  technical  part  of  the  work  is  in  charge  of  a  special 
governmental  department,  the  Department  of  Irri- 
gation. It  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer  of  this  depart- 
ment to  divide  the  water  so  that  each  district  will 
receive  its  due  amount;  the  distribution  within  the  dis- 
trict is  left  as  far  as  possible  to  the  farmers  themselves. 

In  Java  there  are  seven  distinct  irrigation  districts, 
and  the  water  is  so  divided  that  native  farmers  have  a 
sufiicient  supply  to  be  used  mostly  for  their  rice  crops, 
and  the  large  agricultural  industries  of  the  Europeans 
are  furnished  with  enough  water  to  be  used  mostly  in 
sugar-  and  tobacco-growing.  New  irrigation  works, 
such  as  reservoirs,  dams,  intakes,  etc.,  are  constantly 

'  Agriculture,  in  the  form  of  rice-growing,  is  practiced  on  a  huge 
scale,  as  far  as  the  general  results  are  concerned,  but  these  results 
are  made  up  of  the  individual  efforts  of  innumerable  small  native 
rice-growers.  The  government,  fully  realizing  the  values  of  mass 
production,  has  made  a  determined  effort  to  experiment  in  the  pro- 
duction of  rice  on  large  tracts  of  land.  For  this  purpose  the  present 
Director  of  the  Department  of  .\griculture,  Industry,  and  Commerce, 
the  Honorable  Mr.  J.  B.  Sibinga  Mulder,  requested  Mr.  M.  B. 
Smits,  an  agricultural  expert  connected  with  this  department,  to 
visit  the  United  States  and  carefully  study  the  most  improved 
methods  employed  in  California,  Texas,  Louisiana,  etc.  As  a 
consequence  considerable  American  agricultural  machinery  of  the 
latest  and  most  improved  design  was  ordered.  Experiments  are 
conducted  by  the  government  on  a  large  scale,  in  rice  culture  in 
the  Palembang  district  (Sumatra),  while  in  the  Bandjermasin 
district  (Borneo)  vast  grounds  are  being  prepared  for  the  culture  of 
rice  under  modern  irrigation  and  cultivation  methods. 

[235] 


being  constructed.  In  191 9  twenty- four  important 
irrigation  works  were  under  way,  while  plans  were  pro- 
jected for  several  more.  In  Bali  there  are  some  works 
which  were  constructed  solely  by  the  natives,  but 
generally  speaking,  Netherlands  hydraulic  engineering 
skill  is  the  leading  factor  in  the  situation. 

For  instance,  in  Java  alone  there  are  almost  one 
million,  five  hundred  thousand  acres  under  irrigation 
of  permanently  constructed  works.  In  addition  there 
are  800,000  acres  being  irr'gated  by  temporary  works, 
which  will  be  replaced  by  permanent  works,  while 
irrigation  works  are  under  construction  which  will  take 
care  of  about  a  million  and  a  quarter  more  acres. 
During  the  last  five  years  the  government  spent  over 
forty-eight  milKon  guilders  on  this  service  alone. 

/)  Civil  veterinary  service.- — The  health  of  live 
stock  has  the  very  careful  consideration  of  the  gov- 
ernment. This  service  is  under  the  direction  of  an 
inspector-in-chief,  whose  staff  consists  of  four  assist- 
ant inspectors,  forty  veterinary  surgeons,  twenty-four 
assistant  veterinary  surgeons,  four  native  veterinary 
surgeons,  two  hundred  thirty-seven  native  inspectors, 
and  one  special  instructor  of  shoeing. 

The  live  stock,  whose  health  is  in  the  keeping  of  this 
service,  consists  of  4,000,000  head  of  beef,  stock  cattle 
and  dairy  cows,  2,500,000  buffaloes,  300,000  horses, 
3,000,000  goats,  2,500,000  sheep,  and  1,000,000  hogs. 

Besides  the  actual  care  of  the  health  of  these 
animals,  of  which  more  than  90  per  cent  belong  to 
the  natives,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  inspectors  to  improve 

[236] 


the  strain  of  the  stock  by  the  importation  of  thorough- 
bred stallions,  bulls,  cows,  etc.  This  is  done  on  a 
large  scale;  for  instance,  in  19 14,  five  hundred  thor- 
oughbred cows  were  imported  from  Ongole  (Madras) . 
These  soon  gave  two  hundred  young  thoroughbred 
bulls  for  breeding,  etc.  Sandalwood  stallions  were 
likewise  imported  for  the  Preanger  Regencies  (near 
Bata-\da)  and  for  the  island  of  Sumatra.  The  inspec- 
tors use  quarantine  measures  wherever  necessary,  and 
the  benefical  result  of  the  activities  of  this  service  is 
observable  throughout  Insulinde. 

g)  Fisheries. — The  paternal  government  at  Bata- 
via  has  not  overlooked  the  importance  of  fisheries, 
to  provide  food  for  the  population.  A  fishery  di- 
vision was  instituted,  which  operates  as  a  bureau  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Industry,  and  Com- 
merce, while  a  laboratory  of  deep-sea  fishing  research 
is  likewise  maintained,  where  trained  scientists  do 
work  of  the  highest  order. 

To  foster  the  industry  of  deep-sea  fishing,  it  was 
necessary  to  teach  the  people  the  use  of  modern  fishing 
tackle  and  accessories.  Before  these  could  be  used 
successfully,  it  was  necessary  to  construct  modern 
fishermen's  harbors.  This  has  been  done;  also  six 
fishing  associations  were  founded  with  government- 
loaned  capital.  Two  of  them  have  already  repaid 
the  advanced  capital  and  are  now  operating  on  their 
own  capital,  accumulated  from  surplus  profits.  These 
associations  make  loans  to  their  members,  the  native 
fishermen,  and  otherwise  foster  the  industry. 

[237] 


Fishing-banks  have  been  established  with  capital 
advanced  by  the  government,  at  a  yearly  interest 
charge  of  5  per  cent,  and  these  banks  are  also  doing 
fine  work  by  extending  cheap  credits  to  their  clients. 
In  a  country  where  usury  has  ceased  to  be  a  vice,  but 
has  been  elevated  to  a  fine  art,  such  institutions  are 
doing  untold  good.  In  Java  alone  there  are  fish  ponds 
covering  over  one  hundred  thousand  acres,  and  practi- 
cally all  owned  by  the  natives.  Fish  of  many  varieties 
are  grown  here,  and  an  Institute  for  Inland  Fisheries 
is  maintained  at  Tasik  Malaja.  Finally,  a  fish 
technologist  has  been  appointed  by  the  government, 
and  it  is  his  duty  to  advise  the  natives  in  regard  to 
the  proper  preservation  of  fish,  such  as  salting,  etc. 

h)  Forestry. — Deforestation  has  been  one  of  the 
most  serious  blights  inflicted  on  many  tropical  and 
semi-tropical  countries.  Spain,  for  instance,  has  been 
a  sufferer  from  this  national  misuse  for  centuries,  its 
climate,  water  supply,  etc.,  having  been  materially 
affected.  While  in  the  last  ten  years  the  question  of 
scientific  reforestation  has  had  the  active  attention 
of  the  American  government  and  the  American  people, 
the  Netherlands  government  in  Insulinde  was  fully 
alive  to  its  importance  eighty  years  ago.  As  culti- 
vation advanced,  as  plantations  of  tea,  rubber,  etc., 
in  the  foothills  made  continuous  inroads  on  the  virgin 
forests,  the  soil  of  which  was  particularly  adapted  to 
this  cultivation,  it  was  necessary  to  counterbalance 
this  destruction  of  native  lumber  by  planting  forests 
in  other  localities. 

[238] 


The  care  of  the  forests  in  Insullnde  is  intrusted  to  a 
special  forest  service.  For  more  than  seventy  years, 
trained  forest  officials  have  been  employed  in  this 
service.  It  is  especially  in  Java,  where  the  needs  of 
course  were  most  keenly  felt,  that  this  ser\dce  has 
reached  its  highest  development.  There  is  not  yet  a 
practical  "  forest  question"  in  the  outlying  possessions. 
The  duties  of  the  forest  service  are  very  extensive. 
An  endeavor  is  made  to  cover  the  whole  situation,  and 
the  following  matters  have  the  skilled  attention  of 
its  officials:  forest  organization,  forest  management, 
forest  guard,  and  scientific  forestry  research. 

The  first  of  these  subjects  covers  the  regulation 
of  the  forest  boundaries,  the  adoption  of  exploitation 
schemes,  etc.  The  second  includes  exploitation,  re- 
forestation, and  new  plantings  on  new  soil. 

The  forests  of  Java  are  divided  into:  (i)  the  teak 
forests,  both  natural  and  artificial;  (2)  the  other 
forests,  known  as  wild  timber  forests. 

The  teak  forests  are  also  known  as  djati  forests, 
{Tectona  gradis  L.).  These  forests  are  chiefly  found 
in  the  regions  of  the  lower  hills,  generally  less  than 
two  thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  The  timber  does 
not  need  rich  soil,  but  abhors  swampiness  or  impenetra- 
bility. The  lumber  is  much  in  demand  on  account  of 
its  durability  and  because  it  withstands  the  white 
ants.  It  is  used  in  great  quantities  in  the  tropics  for 
shipbuilding,  houses,  furniture,  railroad  ties,  etc. 

The  forests  have  been  exploited  for  centuries,  but 
about  1840  the  government  awoke  to  the  desirability 

[239] 


of  putting  trained  forest  scientists  in  charge.  Several 
forms  of  experimentation  were  tried,  until  the  present 
forest-agricultural  system  was  adopted,  which  allows 
the  natives  to  plant  catch  crops  between  the  rows  of 
the  young  teak  trees.  After  a  period  of  five  or  ten  years 
(depending  on  the  growth  made),  the  first  thinning 
takes  place,  and  each  year  this  thinning  grows  in 
importance.  The  forest  is  generally  "ripe"  for  total 
cutting  in  eighty  years  after  the  planting.  Then  a 
series  of  tramways  and  monorails  is  constructed  to 
remove  the  timber.  In  191 8  there  were  about  one 
million  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  acres  of 
teakwood  in  Java.  In  the  previous  five  years,  the 
forest  service  had  replanted  about  eighty-five  thou- 
sand acres.  In  that  year  alone,  the  teak  forest  of 
Java  furnished  218,693  cubic  meters  of  first-class 
timber,  or,  in  accordance  with  American  measure- 
ments, about  sixty  million  running  board  feet,  while 
over  half  a  million  cords  of  stove  wood  were  produced.' 

'  The  yearly  cut  is  generally  sold  at  auction  or  by  sealed  bids. 
While  Tjepu,  Java,  is  the  central  market-place  for  teak,  a  large 
amount  of  the  wood  is  prepared  for  the  market  at  Samarang,  one 
of  the  loveUest  cities  in  Insulinde.  Samarang  has  a  suburban 
residence  district,  named  Tjandi,  situated  on  a  hill  overlooking 
Samarang  proper.  Here  many  of  the  more  prosperous  citizens  have 
their  residences.  Not  far  from  Tjandi  is  another  small  residence 
city  named  Salatiga,  which,  on  account  of  its  elevation,  has  a  very 
agreeable  climate.  Here  is  the  home  of  Baron  C.  W.  van  Heeckeren, 
the  president  of  the  great  Samarang  Administration  Bureau,  which 
operates  the  famous  quinine  factory  at  Bandong,  discussed  else- 
where. 

In  Samarang,  the  writer  had  the  good  fortune  to  receive  the 
personal  attention  of  Mr.  A,  Mees,  one  of  the  leading  merchants  of 

[240] 


i)  The  wild  timber  forests. — The  total  area  of  Java's 
virgin  forests  is  about  thirty  million  acres,  of  which 
about  three  million  are  in  permanent  forest  reserves. 

Bare  mountain  slopes  are  constantly  reforested  by 
artificial  planting  under  the  guidance  of  the  forest 


that  city,  to  whose  courtesy  and  influence  it  was  due  that  a  thorough 
inspection  could  be  made  of  the  leading  industrial  plants  in  that 
neighborhood,  including  the  modern  and  up-to-date  plant  of  the 
great  Hardwood  Lumber  Industry.  Representatives  of  this  corpora- 
tion had  visited  the  United  States,  and  a  complete  modern  lumber- 
ing plant  and  mill  had  been  installed,  with  the  latest  electrical 
devices.  This  mill  reminds  one  of  the  largest  lumber  mills  in  the 
western  states  of  the  Union.  Huge  teakwood  logs,  a  very  heavy 
lumber,  of  course,  are  handled  with  the  greatest  ease. 

It  was  explained  by  the  manager,  who  was  kind  enough  to  act  as 
guide  throughout  the  visit  to  this  plant,  that  many  .\merican  mechan- 
ics and  foremen  had  been  employed  in  the  beginning  to  instal  and 
operate  the  new  machinery,  and  to  direct  the  different  crews.  From 
a  technical  standpoint  their  service  was  very  satisfactory.  They 
experienced,  however,  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  the  management 
of  the  native  crews  under  them,  and  seemed  often  puzzled  that 
the  superintendents  of  divisions  demanded  courteous  and  decent 
treatment  of  the  natives,  at  the  hands  of  the  men  over  them. 

Anyone  who  has  been  on  the  ranches,  in  the  camps  and  plants 
in  the  western  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  has  seen  the  rough  and 
ready  way  in  which  an  "efficient"  foreman  handles  his  crews,  and 
has  heard  the  contemptuous  way  in  which  he  spoke  to  or  about  his 
"hunkies,"  will  readily  understand  the  difficulty  which  arose  when 
these  methods  were  tried  in  InsuUnde. 

The  Netherlands  managers  are  very  anxious  not  to  create 
breeding-places  for  native  I.W.W.'s,  and  hence  stop  any  and  all 
strong-arm  arguments  on  the  part  of  the  foremen. 

As  a  matter  of  curiosity  it  may  be  noted  here  that  the  same 
difficulty  was  experienced  with  several  of  the  American  bore-masters 
and  foremen  in  the  oil  fields  of  Java.  After  a  while  they  were 
either  obliged  to  quit  or  accept  the  wisdom  of  kindly  treatment,  in 
which  case  complaints  were  no  longer  heard. 

[241] 


experts.  In  these  new  plantings,  varieties  are  selected 
which  are  important  not  only  from  a  hydrological 
standpoint,  but  also  because  they  will  eventually 
produce  a  superior  timber. 

The  felling  of  wild  timber,  both  by  natives  and  by 
those  who  have  acquired  long-time  leases,  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Forest  Service,  which  Hkewise  orders 
and  controls  reforestation  wherever  desirable. 

The  staff  of  the  forest  service  consists  of  one 
inspector-in-chief,  eight  inspectors,  one  director  of  the 
Experimental  Station,  io6  trained  foresters  and  as- 
sistant foresters,  337  overseers,  assistant  overseers, 
and  student  overseers,  494  native  guards,  belonging  to 
the  forest  poHce,  and  7  74  forest  watchmen. 


[242] 


CHAPTER  XI.    INSULINDE  OF  TODAY, 
Concluded 


Government,  a  paternal  one — Great  power  of  private  indus- 
tries— Netherlands  East  Indian  Company  hostile  to  outside 
capital — Forced  cultivation  system  also  hostile — ^Last  seventy 
years  attitude  changed — Present  broad  scope  for  develop- 
ment— Investments  mostly  agricultural-industrial — Difficulties 
to  be  overcome — Sugar  industry — Tobacco  industry — Quinine 
industry — ^Tea  industry — Petroleum  industry — Rubber  in- 
dustry— The  long-lease  land  system — Protection  given  to 
industries — Dangers  of  losing  land — Pohcy  of  government  to 
keep  land  for  natives — Remnant  lands  in  fee  simple — Division 
of  lands — Those  under  direct  government  rule — Those  under 
qualified  rule — ^Laws  governing  leasing  under  each  division^ 
Long  leases — Concessions 


INSULINDE  OF  TODAY,  Concluded 


F  THE  foregoing  pages  have  given  the  reader 
the  idea  that  the  development  of  Insulinde 
is  entirely  or  mainly  dependent  on  govern- 
ment effort,  the  writer  must  apologize  for 
causing  such  an  erroneous  impression.  The 
government,  being  a  paternal  one  (more  so  in  the 
immediate  past  than  at  present),  it  is  but  natural 
that  government  influence  and  direction  are  much 
more  felt  in  guiding  the  destinies  of  the  country 
and  its  people,  the  shaping  of  their  prosperity,  and 
the  acceleration  of  their  evolution,  than  would  be  the 
case  if  the  people  were  ripe  for  a  more  advanced 
democracy.  But  for  all  that,  in  modern  times  the 
real  power  for  sustained  and  progressive  development 
must  be  determined  by  and  derived  from  the  energy 
engendered  by  individual  enterprise  and  industry. 

The  Netherlands  East  Indian  Company  was  far 
from  hospitably  inclined  during  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  toward  "outside  capital."  On 
the  contrary  it  was  decidedly  hostile  to  it,  for  it 
desired,  and  generally  obtained,  a  monopoly. 

After  the  colonies  had  been  acquired  by  the 
state  the  prevailing  desire  to  introduce  the  forced- 
cultivation  system,  and  thereby  produce  state  revenue, 
was  Hkewise  not  conducive  to  private  enterprise  in  the 
colonies.^    For  the  last  seventy  years,  however,  this 

'  For  nearly  half  a  century  (since  1875)  the  treasury  of  the 
mother  country  has  failed  to  receive  any  contribution  from  the 
treasury  of  Insulinde.     Before  1875  regular  contributions,  averaging 

[245] 


whole  attitude  has  slowly  but  definitely  changed, 
with  the  result  that  Insulinde  today  offers  both 
Netherlands  and  foreign  capital  wide  scope  for 
development  and  investment. 

As  InsuUnde  is  principally  a  great  agricultural- 
industrial  country,  these  investments  have  largely 
taken  the  form  of  extensive  plantations.  In  most 
instances  the  necessary  manufacturing  plants  to  make 
the  product  available  for  shipment  to  distant  markets 
were  likewise  established. 

At  the  end  of  19 19  the  number  of  estates  where 
perennial  crops  are  grown,  such  as  essential  oils, 
kapok,  cocoanut  oil,  cinchona,  coffee,  oil  palms, 
rubber,  tea,  and  fibrous  plants  was  forty-ffve.  The 
total  acreage  actually  under  cultivation  was  577,000 
hectares,  being  equal  to  1,442,500  acres.  Sugar  and 
tobacco,  being  annual  crops,  are  not  included  in  these 
statements. 

The  greatest  number  of  estates  are  found  in  the 
Preanger  Regencies  immediately  south  of  Batavia, 
where  289  are  operated.  The  next  largest  number 
are  on  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  where  there  are  233. 
Although  these  estates  are  fewer  in  number,  they  are 
greater  in  extent  than  those  in  the  Preanger  Regencies. 
The  former  cover  about  four  hundred  thousand  acres, 
while  the  latter  cover  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 


between  four  and  six  million  dollars  yearly,  were  made  by  the  colonies 
to  the  mother  country.  Today  the  finances  of  the  colonies  are, 
as  they  hav^e  been  for  many  years,  entirely  separate,  and  Insulinde's 
pubhc  means  are  used  exclusively  for  Insulinde's  benefit. 

[246] 


The  average  estate  in  Insulinde  consists  of  about  one 
thousand  acres.  In  191 9  the  percentage  of  total  acres 
under  cultivation  which  had  reached  the  producing 
stage  were:  cocoa,  67  per  cent;  coca,  95  per  cent; 
kapok,  38  per  cent;  cinchona,  81  per  cent;  cocoanut, 
31  per  cent;  coffee,  75  per  cent;  oil  palm,  35  per 
cent;  rubber,  64  per  cent;  tea,  64  per  cent;  fibrous 
plants,  75  per  cent. 

These  agricultural-industrial  enterprises  are  many 
and  various.  The  history  of  the  birth,  growth,  and 
flowering  of  each  of  these  white  men's  enterprises  is 
an  epic  by  itself.  Untold  difficulties  had  to  be  over- 
come, great  energy,  foresight,  and  patience  had  to  be 
exercised.  It  was  not  only  the  untamed  forces  of  wild 
nature  which  had  to  be  subjugated,  but  also  the 
inertia  and  sloth  of  the  population,  and  the  cunning 
and  graft  of  their  leaders.  Instinctive  opposition  to 
new  conditions  and  many  other  antagonistic  agencies 
had  to  be  laid  bare  and  conquered. 

It  would  take  us  too  far  afield  even  to  describe 
each  of  these  white  men's  industries,  let  alone  to  trace 
in  all  details  their  history,  growth,  and  present 
condition.  It  must  be  sufficient  to  devote  a  few  pages 
to  this  very  important  side  of  colonial  life — just 
sufficient  to  show  the  tremendous  influence  that  these 
industries  have  exerted  in  the  past  and  are  exerting 
now  on  the  people,  their  economic  condition,  and 
their  growth  in  Insulinde. 

Sugar. — The  principal  industry  of  the  islands  is 
the  growing  and  manufacturing  of  sugar  cane.     The 

[247] 


bald  truth  has  been  many  times  stated  that,  if  it  were 
not  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  Insulinde  would  be 
a  burden  to  the  mother  country.  It  has  been  stated 
with  equal  force  and  truth  that  the  sugar  industry  of 
Java  is  suspended  above  destruction  by  a  rope  of 
sand.  The  truth  of  this  assertion  is  easily  ascertained 
by  a  comparative  study  of  the  land  laws  affecting  Java 
and  those  affecting  other  countries  where  sugar  is 
grown  and  manufactured. 

The  world's  sugar  is  principally  obtained  from 
sugar  cane  or  sugar  beets.  In  countries  other  than 
Java,  where  sugar  is  derived  from  crushing  cane,  as 
in  the  Philippines,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Cuba,  and 
the  southern  states  of  the  United  States,  the  factory 
stands  on  land  owned  in  fee  simple  absolute,  and  the 
company  usually  owns  large  tracts  of  land  on  which 
the  cane  is  raised.  While  in  some  of  these  countries 
the  factory  management  prefers  to  have  its  own 
agricultural  department  and  to  raise  its  own  cane  on 
its  own  land,  local  conditions  often  make  it  possible 
to  rent  part  of  these  lands  to  experienced  tenant 
farmers,  who  raise  sugar  cane  thereon  for  a  contract 
price  under  general  factory  supervision. 

This  system  is  also  quite  largely  followed  by  beet 
sugar  companies,  especially  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States.  Almost  invariably  the  sugar  com- 
panies own  large  tracts  of  land  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  and  either  take  the  planting  of  these 
lands  under  their  own  management,  or  furnish  seeds, 
implements,  etc.,  and  often  irrigation  water  to  the 

[248] 


tenant  farmers,  who  then  either  raise  beets  to  be 
delivered  at  a  stated  price  (based  on  the  percentage 
of  sugar  and  coefficient  of  roughness),  or  otherwise 
raise  the  beets  on  shares.  The  factory,  of  course, 
buys  beets  offered  by  outside  farmers  also,  but  the 
ownership  and  control  of  these  tracts  of  land  assure 
each  individual  sugar-mill  a  sufficient  supply  of  beets 
or  cane,  in  the  event  that  the  independent  farmer,  for 
some  reason  or  other,  desires  to  devote  his  lands  to 
different  crops. 

In  Insulinde,  and  particularly  in  Java  where  all 
the  sugar-mills  are  located,  there  is  quite  another 
story. 

In  the  first  place  no  European  or  American 
individual  or  corporation  can  own  any  land.'  The 
native  is  and  must  remain  the  landowner,  save  and 
except  for  the  ground  on  which  the  factory  itself  and 
the  immediately  surrounding  yards  are  situated. 

In  some  parts  of  Java  there  exists  native  owner- 
ship of  land,  which  is  hereditary  and  approaches  a  fee 
simple  absolute;  while  in  other  parts  there  is  owner- 
ship in  common  by  the  village,  the  latter  ownership 
being  divided  into  two  classes,  \dz.:  those  villages 
where  each  villager  has  a  designated  and  definite  piece 
of  ground  with  a  usufructory  right,  and  those  where 
periodically,  generally  every  year,  new  divisions  are 
made. 

'  With  the  very  few  exceptions  hereinbefore  indicated,  which 
lands  are  howe\-er  progressively  reacquired  by  the  government  by 
taxation. 

[249] 


In  maintaining  this  form  of  land  tenure,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  old  adat  and  usages,  the  Netherlands 
law-givers  prove  their  statesmanlike  vision. 

The  great  majority  of  the  natives  in  Java  are  most 
improvident,  and  consequently  always  hard  up  for 
cash.  It  would  therefore  be  only  a  short  while  before 
they  would  fall  prey  to  rapaciously  inclined  white 
men  as  well  as  foreign  Orientals,  and  be  divested  of 
their  rights  to  the  soil,  with  the  result  that  soon  the 
multitude  of  dessamen  would  form  a  great  army  of 
agricultural  proletariat.  That  this  is  not  an  idly 
conceived  danger  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  shrewder  natives  seem  to  be  able,  often  by  usury, 
to  acquire  quite  extensive  holdings  in  places  where 
land  can  be  owned  in  fee. 

But  while  this  land  system  proves  beneficial  to  the 
natives  it  makes  the  investment  of  capital  for  the 
manufacturer  of  sugar  far  more  precarious  in  Java 
than  in  other  sugar-producing  countries.  It  is  there- 
fore but  natural  that  capital,  under  these  circum- 
stances, should  demand  a  larger  return,  part  of 
which  is  considered  as  an  insurance  premium 
against  the  possible  loss  which  ever  threatens  the 
industry. 

Sugar,  like  tobacco,  is  most  exclusively  raised  on 
the  level  valley  land  where  fields  can  be  irrigated  and 
are  free  from  changing  temperatures.  This  precludes 
new  sugar  enterprises  from  taking  up  wild  government 
land  under  long  leaseholds,  but  compels  the  raising 
of  the  sugar  cane  on  lands  which  otherwise  would  be 

[250] 


used  by  the  population  as  sawahs,  or  rice  fields. 
Too  great  an  extension  of  the  industry  might,  there- 
fore, threaten  the  food  supply  of  the  natives.  The 
government  consequently  has  thrown  a  great  many 
restrictions  aroimd  such  land-leasing  by  sugar  com- 
panies, the  object  being  to  prevent  leasing  more  land 
for  European  agricultural-industrial  purposes  than 
is  for  the  best  interest  of  the  native  population, 
especially  in  view  of  ever-increasing  food  costs. 

No  lease  is  valid  unless  approved  by  the  controller, 
that  is,  the  government  administrator  of  the  district, 
whose  special  duty  it  is  to  look  after  and  protect  the 
interests  of  the  natives.  After  the  controller  has 
approved  the  lease,  it  must  have  the  further  approval 
of  the  assistant  resident.  That  functionary  may 
refuse  to  grant  his  approval  for  several  reasons: 

a)  If  the  ground  is  leased  from  a  dessa,  the  land 
of  which  is  held  in  common,  and  if  one-third  of  all  the 
tenants  in  common  should  object. 

b)  If  more  than  one-third  of  the  sawahs  (rice 
fields)  are  contracted  for, 

c)  If  there  is  reason  to  beHeve  that  the  natives 
do  not  quite  understand  the  conditions  of  the  leases, 
or  have  been  in  any  way  imposed  upon. 

In  the  last  few  years  a  new  law  has  gone  into  effect 
by  which  a  minimum  rent  has  been  estabhshed. 
That  means  that  no  lease  is  valid  unless  the  native 
receives  in  cash,  for  rent,  the  equivalent  of  what  he 
would  have  received  had  the  land  been  devoted  to 
native  cropping. 

[251] 


About  one  million  acres  are  devoted  to  this  indus- 
try, about  one-third  of  which  is  planted  yearly.  Dur- 
ing the  active  months  of  the  industry  about  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  natives  find  remunerative 
employment  in  the  sugar  fields,  and  about  one  hun- 
dred thousand  more  in  the  mills. 

From  the  very  fact  that  such  huge  numbers  of 
natives  are  employed,  and  that  the  mills  are  compelled 
to  pay  yearly  rents,  it  is  obvious  that  an  important 
part  of  the  return  from  the  sale  price  of  sugar  remains 
in  the  islands,  and  while  the  government  realizes,  on 
one  hand,  that  continuous  protection  of  the  natives 
against  the  sugar-mills'  management  is  necessary,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  alive  to  the  fact  that  regulating 
these  industries  to  such  an  extent  that  capital  would  no 
longer  be  attracted,  would  mean  killing  the  goose  which 
lays  the  golden  egg,  for  white  man  and  native  alike. 

In  1 91 9  there  were  179  of  these  mills  in  operation, 
producing  a  total  of  1,336,112  tons  of  sugar.  The 
principal  customers  for  this  huge  amount  of  sugar 
were  Japan  (364,176  tons),  Calcutta  (213,350  tons), 
Great  Britain  (212,624  tons),  and  Hongkong  (206,708 
tons) . 

The  industry  is  organized  on  the  most  scientific 
lines.  At  Samarang  and  other  places  it  maintains  an 
"experimental  station  for  the  sugar  industry."  This 
experimental  station  has  a  division  for  agricultural 
affairs,  a  technical,  and  a  chemical  division.  A  visit 
to  the  station  is  of  absorbing  interest.  It  is  difficult 
to  imagine  anything  more  thoroughly  competent  and 

[252] 


complete  in  experimental  and  control  work.  One 
could  not  meet  scientists  who  are  more  courteous, 
able,  or  enthusiastic  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties 
than  the  gentlemen  in  charge  of  the  different  divisions 
of  this  important  station. 

While  each  large  sugar-mill  in  Java  has  its  general 
manager,  to  whom  the  heads  of  departments  make 
their  daily  reports,  these  general  managers  in  turn 
report  daily  to  the  experimental  station.  Here  all 
the  returns  are  carefully  tabulated  and  checked  over. 
If  it  is  found  that  the  returns  of  any  of  the  mills  are 
not  up  to  the  very  highest  standard,  an  "advice"  is 
immediately  sent  by  telegram  to  the  mills'  general 
manager,  who  can  then  confer  with  his  mechanical 
engineer,  his  chemical  engineer,  or  his  agricultural 
manager,  in  an  effort  to  locate  the  difficulty.  If  it  is 
not  promptly  found,  and  the  slack  taken  up,  an  expert 
is  dispatched  from  the  station.  He  generally  reaches 
the  mill  within  twenty-four  hours,  and  gives  the  neces- 
sary advice  and  assistance.  Throughout  the  cam- 
paign this  work  is  conscientiously  kept  up. 

During  the  month  of  August,  19 19,  the  writer  was 
given  the  opportunity  of  thoroughly  inspecting  this 
station.  Two  of  the  division  directors  were  kind 
enough  to  conduct  him  through  the  splendid  experi- 
mental buildings,  offices,  etc. 

It  was  quite  a  novel  sight  to  see  native  office 
employees  successfully  using  a  great  number  of  the 
most  comphcated  American  office  devices,  such  as 
tabulating  machines,  calculating  machines,  phonetic 

[253] 


typewriters,  etc.  "Efficiency"  was  written  with 
large  letters  over  the  whole  institution. 

One  of  the  many  model  sugar  factories  in  Java 
represented  at  this  institution  is  situated  near 
Djokjakarta.  It  is  known  as  Bantool,  and  engineer 
P.  W.  M.  Trap  is  the  general  manager.  Under  the 
guidance  of  this  efficient  and  kindly  gentleman  the 
writer,  who  had  seen  many  of  the  largest  sugar-mills 
in  the  world,  was  given  the  opportunity  of  intimately 
acquainting  himself  with  the  processes  in  use.  In 
this  sugar-mill,  as  in  most,  if  not  all  of  those  operating 
in  Java,  the  very  latest  scientific  methods  are  applied 
in  the  most  practical  way. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco  has  had  the  attention  of  the 
European  planters  for  a  long  time.  While  it  has 
been  cultivated  in  a  great  many  places,  at  present  the 
east  coast  of  Sumatra  (Deli)  and  the  principalities 
of  Java  (Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta,  and  Bezuki,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Java)  are  the  chief  localities  where 
tobacco  is  raised  on  a  large  scale  for  the  European 
markets. 

Tobacco  culture  is  likewise  the  subject  of  most 
careful  attention  from  agricultural  experts.  While 
formerly  tobacco  was  easily  grown  on  virgin  soil  where 
the  forests  had  just  been  removed,  as  in  Sumatra 
today,  the  utmost  attention  is  paid  to  irrigation, 
drainage,  artificial  fertilizing,  seed  selection,  etc.,  so 
that  other  lands  may  be  utilized. 

During  the  war  the  export  of  tobacco  was  much 
curtailed.     In  19 14  it  was  about  sixty-five  thousand 

[254] 


tons,  in  191 5  about  eighty- two  thousand  tons,  in  19 16 
close  to  one  hundred  thousand  tons.  Since  then 
there  has  been  a  slump  in  the  export. 

Amsterdam  is  the  great  market  for  this  product.^ 

Coffee. — Java  coffee,  or  Java-Mocha,  is  well  known 
in  all  English-speaking  countries.  Under  the  en- 
forced cultivation  system  {cultuur  slelsel)  special 
attention  was  given  to  this  crop,  as  it  promised  to 
become  the  most  profitable. 

The  industry  has  had  its  ups  and  downs.  Among 
the  latter  a  leaf  disease  caused  by  a  fungus — the 
Himeleia  Vestratrix — deserves  special  mention.  At 
one  time  the  inroads  of  this  fungus  were  so  severe 
that  it  was  feared  the  whole  industry  would  be 
wiped  out. 

The  old  and  reliable  cofea  arahica  proved  to  be  an 
easy  prey.  All  kinds  of  experiments  were  indulged 
in  to  stop  the  ravages  caused  by  this  plant  pest,  such 
as  extra  fertilizing,  heavy  pruning,  etc.     Finally  the 

'  During  the  writer's  visit  in  Insulinde  in  19 19,  two  large  tobacco 
plantations  were  visited,  one  situated  near  Djokjakarta,  named 
"Sorogedoog,"  of  which  Mr.  J.  J.  Struben  is  general  manager,  and 
where  a  very  high  state  of  tobacco  culture  has  been  attained;  the 
other  near  Deli,  Sumatra.  The  latter  was  visited  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Honorable  V.  Obdeijn,  assistant  resident  at  Medan,  who  at 
the  request  of  Governor  Grijzen  had  courteously  consented  to  be  our 
guide.  WTiile  the  labor  on  the  former  plantation  consists  entirely 
of  free  Javanese,  the  work  on  the  latter  was  mostly  done  by  coolie 
contract  labor.  This  consisted  partly  of  Chinese  and  partly  of 
Javanese.  The  Javanese  men  and  women  working  there  appeared 
to  be  well  fed  and  happy,  and  seemed  to  receive  as  kind  treatment 
as  they  could  enjoy  in  their  native  habitat.  Moreover,  their  wages 
were  very  much  higher. 

[255I 


'mportation  of  hybrid  coffee  plants,  such  as  the  liheria 
and  robusta,  proved  to  be  the  most  promising  remedy. 
Today  the  industry  is  again  flourishing,  and  Java 
cofi'ee  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  crop  in  19 18  was: 


Arabica 

Liberia 

Robusta 

Sundries 

Total 

Java 

Sumatra 

Bali    and 
Celebes. . . . 

42,582 
68,686 

7S,ooi 

17,487 
2,154 

1,183 

797,986 
121,204 

2,643 

24,056 
1,571 

12 

882,111 
193,615 

78,839 

Total. .  .  . 

196,269 

20,824 

921,833 

25,639 

1,154,56s 

The  weights  in  the  foregoing  table  are  all  piculs, 
one  picul  being  equal  to  136  pounds.  The  total  of  the 
coffee  crop  was  therefore  157,020,840  pounds. 

The  coffee  of  commerce  is  of  course  the  dried  part 
of  the  berry.  The  preparation  of  these  berries,  after 
they  are  picked,  is  most  important.  Several  methods 
are  followed,  each  taking  considerable  labor.  The 
cultivation  and  final  production  of  coffee  therefore 
gives  employment  to  a  multitude  of  native  laborers, 
not  to  speak  of  the  many  small  farmers  who  raise 
coffee  for  local  consumption,  or  for  sale  to  the 
exporters.  Amsterdam  is  the  main  market  for  this 
product  also. 

Quinine. — One  of  Java's  industries  which  attracted 
world-attention  during  the  Great  War  is  the  quinine 
industry.  This  enormous  industry,  which  has  proved 
of  untold  value  to  humanity,  is  purely  of  govern- 
mental conception  and  birth. 

[256] 


Kina,  or  quinine,  first  drew  the  attention  of  the 
white  race  in  1638  when  Countess  del  Chinchona,  the 
wife  of  the  Spanish  Viceroy  of  Peru,  was  suffering  from 
persistent  and  malignant  fevers.  She  was  given  a  dry 
powder  as  medicine  by  Don  Juan  Lopez  de  Cauizores, 
who  had  learned  the  secret  of  this  cure  from  the 
natives.  The  medicine  administered  had  the  desired 
effect,  and  the  noble  lady  became  the  "booster" 
of  this  new  medicament.  After  her  it  was  called 
chinchona  or  cinchona,  and  sometimes  "Powder  of 
the  Countess."  Later  it  was  known  as  "Powder  of 
the  Jesuits." 

About  thirty  or  forty  varieties  of  trees,  the  bark 
of  which  was  pulverized,  proved  to  have  this  medical 
value.  All  of  them  grew  in  the  Andes  mountain 
forests  from  Bolivia  to  Ecuador,  at  an  elevation  of 
4,500  to  7,000  feet.  For  years  these  trees  were  cut 
down  whenever  quinine  was  needed,  and  the  fear 
gained  ground  that  eventually  the  supply  would  be 
destroyed  by  the  ever-growing  demand. 

In  1829  Dr.  Blume  proposed  to  plant  some  of 
the  trees  in  Java,  but  it  was  not  until  1852  that  the 
botanical  garden  of  the  University  of  Leyden  sent  the 
first  two  small  quinine  plants  to  Java.  As  these  small 
plants  found  a  congenial  climate  and  surrounding  in 
Java,  the  botanical  expert,  Hesskart,  was  sent  as  a 
special  representative  to  South  America.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  back  500  plants  to  Batavia,  367 
of  which  survived.  The  Dutch  government,  with 
its  usual  foresight,  had  sent  a  warship  to  Peru  to 

[257] 


bring  the  botanist  and  these  valuable  plants  to 
Insulinde. 

Many  trees  were  propagated  from  these  original 
plants;  in  fact  as  many  as  130,000,  but  they  did  not 
prove  to  be  of  the  best  variety. 

In  1865  Mr.  George  Ledger,  an  Englishman, 
succeeded  in  acquiring  a  large  package  of  seeds  of 
cinchona  trees,  part  of  which  were  sold  to  the  Nether- 
lands East  Indian  government.  The  trees  grown  from 
these  seeds  proved  a  success,  on  account  of  their 
high  qualities  for  the  production  of  quinine,  and  in 
honor  of  Mr.  Ledger  they  were  called  Ledgeriana. 
They  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Rubiaceae,  to  which 
coffee  also  belongs. 

Cinchona  trees  grow  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  to 
6,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Grounds  exceptionally 
fertile  allow  the  successful  growth  of  the  trees  as  low 
as  3,000  feet,  but  this  is  not  the  general  rule.  The 
trees  grow  best  on  gently  sloping  ground  in  a  damp 
cUmate.  They  need  an  average  yearly  rainfall  of 
100  inches. 

As  fresh  forest  grounds  are  best  for  the  cultivation 
of  quinine,  the  plantations  of  this,  as  well  as  of  tea, 
coffee,  and  rubber,  may  be  located  on  the  wild  govern- 
ment lands  and  do  not  encroach  on  the  native  sawahs 
of  the  low  lands. 

The  time  when  the  bark  from  the  young  trees  may 
be  first  collected  depends  entirely  on  the  space  in 
which  the  trees  are  grown.  If  the  trees  are  four  feet 
apart,  it  is  generally  considered  that  in  the  third  year 

[258] 


(that  is  five  years  after  seeding)  the  first  crop  may  be 
taken  by  reducing  each  tree  to  one  stem,  and  removing 
all  the  lower  branches.  The  following  year  thinning 
out  may  begin  by  selection,  the  rule  of  experts  being 
to  thin  out  often  and  on  a  scientific  and  selective 
basis. 

The  bark,  as  a  general  rule,  is  divided  into  fac- 
tory bark  and  pharmaceutical  bark.  The  latter  is 
obtained  by  peehng  oflf  pieces  as  large  as  possible  with 
a  knife.  These  are  then  graded  in  certain  lengths 
and  thicknesses.  They  are  rolled  up  like  pipes  and 
shipped  in  bundles. 

Factory  bark  is  packed  in  sacks  made  of  jute  fiber 
after  it  has  first  been  crushed  on  a  wooden  block  by 
hand,  or  ground  by  motor-power  in  a  mill.  This  dry 
bark  is  pressed  in  bales  of  two  hundred  pounds. 

The  writer  had  the  privilege  of  observing  the 
quinine  industry  from  the  moment  the  seeds  are 
placed  in  the  beds  until  the  manufactured  article  is 
placed  in  especially  prepared  tubes.  For  that  pur- 
pose he  was  hospitably  and  kindly  received  on  the 
"Soekawana"  plantation  of  cinchona  trees,  situated 
in  the  foothills  above  Bandong,  in  the  Preanger 
Regencies.  Bandong  has  an  elevation  of  2,100  feet, 
and  the  climate  is  delightful.  In  the  evening  Euro- 
pean clothes  are  worn  with  comfort.  The  planta- 
tion in  question  was  situated  about  five  thousand 
feet  above  sea-level. 

The  manager,  Mr.  J.  J.  Holtzapffel,  courteously 
explained  and  demonstrated  the  tedious  processes 

[259] 


necessary  to  grow  the  desired  trees;  the  seed  beds, 
their  protection  against  the  morning  cold  and  hot 
afternoon  suns ;  the  transplanting  of  the  young  plants 
from  seed  beds  to  nursery  rows ;  afterward  from  there 
to  permanent  places  in  the  cleared  forest  grounds; 
their  cultivation  and  protection  during  growth;  then 
the  thinning  out,  the  cutting  of  the  trees,  and  the 
peeling  of  the  bark.  The  latter  process  reminds  one 
strongly  of  the  process  of  obtaining  tan  oak  bark  in 
the  United  States  hill  districts.  Finally,  the  pounding 
of  the  bark  into  a  powder  was  shown,  and  the  baling 
and  shipping  of  the  same  to  the  great  factory  at 
Bandong  or  to  the  godowns,  where  it  would  be  further 
shipped  as  cinchona  bark  to  European  markets. 

By  1873  the  first  quinine  was  brought  to  Amster- 
dam and  sold  at  public  auction — 410  pounds  at  about 
two  dollars  a  pound.  While  the  culture  of  quinine 
was,  in  its  inception,  a  government-fostered  enterprise, 
private  interest  soon  took  hold,  and  the  industry  was 
extended  to  an  enormous  degree.  In  191 9  the  export 
of  cinchona  bark  from  Java  was  about  twelve  million 
pounds  from  January  to  October,  while  in  the  same 
period  about  one  million  one  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  manufactured  quinine  were  likewise  ex- 
ported from  Java.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  quinine 
used  in  the  world  is  now  supplied  by  Insulinde. 

At  Bandong  an  enormous  quinine  factory  has  been 
established.  Although  this  factory  is  absolutely 
closed  to  visitors,  the  writer  and  his  party  received 
special  permission  to  see  it  under  the  personal  guid- 

[260] 


ance  of  its  director,  Mr.  J.  van  den  Bos.  It  is  here 
that  huge  quantities  of  cinchona  bark  are  made  into 
sulphate  of  quinine,  white  or  gray,  to  conform  with 
the  requirements  of  the  different  standard  pharma- 
copias.  American  factory  efiiciency  is  here  blended 
with  careful,  scientific  Holland  management,  and  this 
factory  offers  one  of  the  most  impressive  industrial 
sights  in  the  Orient. 

The  chief  alkaloids  found  in  quinine  bark  are 
quinine,  quindine,  chinchonidine,  cenchonine,  quena- 
acid,  qunamine,  and  a  few  others. 

An  estimate  of  the  amount  of  suffering  which  was 
alleviated  during  the  Great  War  by  this  Javanese 
quinine  bafifles  computation.  Verily  the  foresight  of 
the  Netherlands  government  in  1852  has  been  of 
untold  benefit  to  humanity  during  this  crucial  period. 

Insulinde  offers  an  additional  number  of  other 
industries,  in  agricultural  and  mineral  lines,  such  as 
the  production  of  vegetable  oils,^  copra  and  copra 
cakes,  tapioca,  indigo,  coca  and  cacao,  tin,  gold,  coal, 

'  The  manufacturing  and  e?q3ort  of  copra  oil  has  received  a 
tremendous  impetus  during  the  last  few  years.  The  cocoanut  palm, 
from  which  copra  oil  is  derived,  is  a  native  of  Insulinde  where  it  is 
called  kalapa.  It  belongs  to  the  family  of  fan  palms.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  native  culture,  as  a  great  number  of  these  valuable  palms 
are  grown  by  the  natives  on  their  own  lands.  Since  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  large  new  plantations  have  also  been  started  on 
long-lease  government  lands,  and  for  extraction  of  the  oil  there  are 
now  factories  with  up-to-date  machinerj%  etc.  The  value  of  the 
export  from  Java  and  Madura  alone  was,  in  1919,  as  follows:  for 
copra  oil,  67,279,244florins,  or  $26,911,697;  for  copra  cakes,  5,679,429 
florins,  or  $2,371,771;  and  for  dried  copra,  39,441,748  florins,  or 
$15.776,992 — a  total  of  about  forty-three  million  dollars. 

[261] 


etc.,  all  of  which  greatly  influence  the  development  of 
the  Colonies.  But  there  are  three  industries  which 
deserve  special  mention,  as  they  have  been  developed 
in  huge  proportions  entirely  due  to  Netherlands  enter- 
prise, to-wit:  (a)  the  tea  industry;  (b)  the  petroleum 
and  allied  industries;   (c)  the  rubber  industry. 

Tea. — Tea  was  introduced  in  1826,  when  a  Dutch 
physician  in  Japan  sent  seeds  to  the  botanical  garden 
at  Buitenzorg.  A  small  start  with  tea  culture  was 
made  in  the  next  year  when  the  tea  expert  of  the 
Netherlands  Trading  Society,  Mr.  J.  Jacobson,  arrived 
in  Java,  after  having  studied  in  Canton.  He  returned 
to  China  for  further  investigations  and  in  1829  sent  a 
collection  of  Chinese  tea  seeds  and  plants  to  Java. 
In  1832  he  returned  to  Insulinde,  bringing  with  him 
two  Chinese  tea  experts. 

Up  to  1842  the  tea  industry  remained  a  govern- 
ment monopoly,  but  after  that  the  culture  of  tea  was 
opened  to  private  enterprise. 

At  first  the  fragrant  Chinese  tea  was  almost 
exclusively  cultivated,  but  in  1878  the  tea  plant  of 
Assam  was  imported.  This  lent  itself  better  to  the 
production  of  tea  leaves  in  greater  quantities.  Today 
the  Assamica  in  pure  and  hybrid  form  is  almost 
exclusively  cultivated  in  Insulinde. 

While  tobacco  and  sugar  are  mostly  grown  on  the 
level,  irrigated  lands,  and  therefore  almost  entirely  on 
rented  lands,  the  cultivation  of  the  tea  plant  lends 
itself  to  the  foothills,  and  the  land  given  under  long 
lease  by  the  government. 

[262] 


One  who  desires  to  see  a  tea  plantation  which  is  a 
real  show-place  of  beauty  and  efficiency  should 
endeavor  to  obtain  an  introduction  to  one  of  the 
owners  of  the  famous  "Malabar"  and  adjoining  plan- 
tations, situated  in  the  Preanger  Regencies  above 
Bandong.  Mr.  K.  A.  R.  Bosscha  is  the  presiding 
director.  This  gentleman  has  many  different  inter- 
ests to  occupy  his  mind,  not  the  least  being  the 
Volksraad  at  Weltevreden,  of  which  he  is  an  important 
and  valued  member.  We  are  fortunate  enough  to 
obtain  through  him  an  introduction  to  his  junior, 
Mr.  R.  A.  Kerkhoven,  a  gentleman  belonging  to  an 
old  planter  family,  who  represents  what  in  England 
would  be  called  a  prominent  county  family.  Mana- 
ging estates  seems  to  come  as  naturally  to  these 
members  of  the  landed  aristocracy  in  the  Indies  as  it 
does  everywhere  else  on  the  globe.  It  is  in  the  blood. 
Mr.  Kerkhoven  is  not  an  exception  to  this  rule. 
Besides  being  a  charming  host  and  guide,  he  appeared 
to  have  a  firm  grasp  on  all  the  details  of  his  enormous 
tea  enterprises.  Nothing  apparently  escaped  his  eye, 
and  it  was  easily  imagined  that  he  was  as  much  at 
home  in  his  office  as  in  the  saddle. 

The  plantation  itself  is  situated  in  the  hills,  with 
wide  vistas  over  the  valleys  below,  and  the  back- 
ground of  magnificent  forests,  with  the  immaculate 
buildings  in  the  foreground,  the  splendid  roads,  and 
cultivated  fields,  is  an  unending  delight  to  the  eye. 

The  writer  has  visited  many  famous  estates  in 
many  places  of  the  world,  but  seldom  had  he  seen  one 

[263] 


where  efficiency,  combined  with  excellent  taste,  was 
so  much  in  evidence. 

The  tea  plant  generally  grows  at  an  elevation  of 
from  one  thousand  to  four  thousand  five  hundred  feet 
above  sea-level,  and,  while  the  plants  need  a  great 
deal  of  rain,  still  they  are  sensitive  to  stagnant  water 
around  their  roots.  Rolling  hills,  well  drained,  are 
preferable.  Plenty  of  sun  is  required,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary for  this  reason  to  prevent  any  and  all  other 
vegetation  between  the  rows. 

While  sugar  cane  and  tobacco  must  be  quickly 
harvested,  whenever  the  time  for  gathering  has 
arrived,  the  harvesting  of  tea  is  a  process  which  lasts 
the  year  round.  It  is  generally  done  by  women  and 
children,  as  each  little  leaf  must  be  picked  carefully 
and  individually  from  the  stem.  Immediately  after 
picking,  the  leaves  must  be  taken  to  the  factory,  which 
is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  plantation,  to  be  as- 
sorted, wilted,  and  dried. 

It  is  customary  to  divide  the  plantations  into 
parcels  of  land  which  are  indicated  by  dracaenas,  and 
the  work  is  so  regulated  that  every  forty  or  fifty  days, 
each  of  the  bushes  in  each  of  the  plots  is  carefully  gone 
over  and  the  leaves  picked. 

After  the  tea  is  dried  in  the  factories  by  modern 
dehydrating  machinery,  it  is  again  carefully  assorted. 
Then  it  is  brought  on  the  market  under  different 
names. 

Contrary  to  general  belief,  the  different  names  do 
not  indicate  different  varieties  of  tea,  for  it  is  all  of 

[264] 


the  Assam  variety,  but  the  difference  comes  from  pick- 
ing various  sorts  of  leaves  in  accordance  with  their  age. 
For  instance,  the  famous  Pekoe  is  made  of  the  very 
young  leaves,  the  Souchong  from  the  smallest  leaves, 
and  the  Oolong  and  Congo,  from  different  grades  of 
leaves  of  the  same  plant. 

For  the  last  few  decades  the  natives  have  cultivated 
a  great  deal  of  tea  on  their  own  grounds,  and  it  is  the 
custom  to  offer  these  leaves  for  sale  to  the  adjoining 
plantation  factories. 

In  1918  Insulinde  exported  over  60,000,000  pounds 
of  tea.     This  was  below  normal,  for  both  in  191 5  and 

1916  it  exported  close  to  100,000,000  pounds,  and  in 

191 7  nearly  80,000,000  pounds.  The  export  of  Java 
alone  in  1919  was  close  to  45,000,000  guilders. 

Tea  culture  had  to  contend  with  a  great  many 
difl&culties  during  the  war,  but  in  1919  many  impedi- 
ments were  removed,  and  the  auctions  of  tea  at 
Amsterdam  and  London  were  again  started.  In  the 
London  markets  alone  107,000  cases  of  Netherlands 
East  Indian  tea  were  placed,  while  at  the  Amsterdam 
auctions  about  180,000  cases  were  disposed  of  from 
Java,  and  8,000  cases  from  Sumatra.^ 

While  formerly  tea  was  almost  exclusively  grown 
in  the  island  of  Java,  lately  the  culture  has  had  con- 
siderable attention  in  Sumatra,  especially  near  Pa- 
dang  and  in  the  Deli  district  near  Pematang  Sir  Antar. 

'See  article  "Conditions  in  Dutch  East  Indies,"  from  Report 
of  1919  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  at  Amsterdam  in  Economic 
Inlelligence  Bulletin  of  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  The  Hague, 
dated  December  10,  1920. 

[265] 


Netherlands,  English,  and  German  capital  is  inter- 
ested, and  it  is  expected  that  about  twenty-five 
thousand  acres  of  tea  will  soon  be  in  full  production. 

As  many  gardens  yield  one  thousand  pounds  yearly 
per  acre,  it  is  beHeved  that  Sumatra  will  bring  a  hand- 
some quantity  of  tea  on  the  market,  especially  as  the 
total  area  is  subject  to  vast  expansion/ 

The  petroleum  industry. — The  history  of  this  indus- 
try is  closely  interwoven  with  that  of  the  Royal  Dutch 
Petroleum  Company,  which  began  its  operations  in 
1890,  with  a  capital  of  one  million  three  hundred 
thousand  guilders.  In  1919  its  capital  had  increased 
almost  three  hundred  fold,  that  is,  to  about  four 
hundred  million  guilders.  The  profits  during  that 
year  were  over  one  hundred  million  guilders.  Dur- 
ing its  years  of  existence  enormous  dividends  have 
often  been  paid,  and  its  activities  have  been  continu- 
ously extended. 

After  several  financial  transactions,  the  Royal 
Dutch  Petroleum  Company  allied  itself  with  others, 
and  has  become  exclusively  a  parent  or  holding  com- 
pany. It  holds  in  its  treasury  60  per  cent  of  all  the 
shares  of  the  Bataafsche  Petroleum  Company,  which 
company  operates  extensively  in  Insulinde.  In  1907 
the  Royal  Dutch  Petroleum  Company  and  the  Shell 
Company  fused  their  interests.  By  the  terms  of  this 
fusion,  the  Royal  Dutch  Petroleum  Company  acquired 
in  perpetuity  60  per  cent  of  all  the  property  of  the 

'  See  Dr.  Charles  Bernard's  "Tea  Growing  on  Sumatra's  East 
Coast"  in  Sluyler's  MonlUy  Magazine,  December,  1920. 

[266] 


combine,  while  the  Shell  Company  obtained  the  re- 
maining 40  per  cent.  The  principal  seats  of  business 
are  in  London  and  The  Hague. 

The  allied  and  subsidiary  companies  have  spread 
all  over  the  world,  for  instance  in  Roumania  through 
the  "Astra  Romana,"  in  Egypt  through  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Oilfields,  Ltd.,  in  Oklahoma  and  the  mid- 
continent  of  the  United  States  of  America  through 
the  Roxana  Petroleum  Corporation  of  Virginia,  in 
California  and  the  western  states  of  America  through 
the  Shell  Oil  Company  of  California,  in  Mexico 
through  the  La  Corona  Petroleum  Company  and  the 
so-called  JMexican  Eagle  (Compania  Mexicana  de 
Petroleo  El  Aguilla),  etc. 

The  Bataafsche  Petroleum  Company  aforesaid  has 
several  magnificent  establishments  in  Insulinde.  It 
maintains  two  refining  plants  on  the  island  of 
Sumatra,  two  on  the  island  of  Java,  one  on  the  island 
of  Borneo,  which  is  the  largest  of  them  all,  while  on 
the  island  of  Ceram  is  located  a  distilling  plant.  There 
are  also  important  tank  installations  on  different 
islands  of  the  archipelago. 

The  center  of  the  oil  industry  in  Java  is  at  Tjepu, 
a  small  town  half-way  between  Surabaya  and  Sama- 
rang.  Here  a  great  modern  factory  has  been  estab- 
lished, where  the  oil  is  refined  and  all  by-products 
are  manufactured,  such  as  candles,  etc.  It  is  a  real 
joy  to  visit  this  factory.  The  writer  was  most  hospi- 
tably received  there,  and  an  opportunity  was  extended 
to  see  the  oil  industry  from  top  to  bottom.     Under 

[267] 


the  personal  guidance  of  the  courteous  and  able 
manager,  Mr.  J.  G.  Pouw,  we  visited  the  oil  wells 
situated  several  miles  from  the  factory  in  the  middle 
of  a  teakwood  forest,  where  chattering  monkeys  were 
having  an  enjoyable  time.  Several  ne\y  wells  were 
being  drilled,  some  under  the  guidance  of  American 
bore-masters.  More  wells  were  in  operation,  three  or 
four  being  pumped  at  the  same  time,  by  means  of  one 
electrical  device.  Geologists  were  engaged  in  survey- 
ing the  ground  and  indicating  spots  where  new  trial 
wells  should  be  sunk.  Several  pipe  lines  were  convey- 
ing the  oil  to  the  factory.  On  our  return  to  the  plant 
several  hours  were  spent  within  the  factory,  where, 
with  the  aid  of  modern  machinery,  a  vast  multitude 
of  native  mechanics  and  laborers  were  at  work  in  the 
refineries,  machine  shops,  can  factories,  etc. 

Only  the  higher  employees,  such  as  the  assistant 
manager,  analyzing  chemists,  engineers,  etc.,  were 
Hollanders.  All  the  others  were  natives.  The  fac- 
tory had  all  the  appearances  of  a  huge  American 
manufacturing  plant  in  full  blast.  Private  railroad 
tracks  crossed  the  yards  in  every  direction,  shunting 
the  cars  before  the  different  sheds  and  buildings.  To 
make  the  picture  complete,  armed  native  policemen 
were  patroling  the  yards,  for  a  strike  among  the 
native  workmen  had  just  ended,  and  the  ringleaders, 
though  defeated  and  repudiated  by  the  better  elements 
of  workingmen,  still  needed  watching. 

The  oil  derived  from  the  various  wells  is  very 
different   in    appearance   and  In   consistency.     For 

[268] 


instance,  the  oil  of  Sumatra  is  lighter  than  that  of 
Borneo.  The  Sumatra  oil  contains  a  greater  percent- 
age of  benzine  and  less  paraffine,  the  latter  substance 
being  found  mainly  in  Javanese  and  Borneo  oil. 

Most  of  the  geologists  of  the  oil  companies  are 
graduates  from  the  College  of  Engineers  at  Delft, 
Holland,  but  in  former  years  many  Swiss  geologists 
were  employed,  who  rendered  very  important  and 
valuable  service.  Many  of  the  young  Dutch  geolo- 
gists were  trained  under  the  direction  of  Swiss  experts. 
In  late  years  a  great  deal  of  boring  machinery  has 
been  imported  from  the  United  States,  and  American 
bore-masters  and  other  chief  mechanics  are  employed. 

The  Royal  Dutch  and  Shell  Combine  maintain  a 
fleet  of  tank  steamers.  This  fleet  is  under  the 
management  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Petroleum  Company, 
Ltd.,  of  London.  Sixty  per  cent  of  the  shares  of  the 
latter  company  are  owned  by  the  Royal  Dutch  Pe- 
troleum Company.  The  tank  ships  owned  in  191 9 
by  this  combine  numbered  544,669,  and  several 
chartered  ships  in  addition  operated  under  its  house 
flag. 

Years  ago  this  combine  found  a  practical  and  rea- 
sonable solution  of  the  grave  question  of  encouraging 
saving  and  thrift  among  the  oflficials  and  employees. 
For  that  purpose  it  created  a  thrift  and  provident 
fund.  The  employees  are  required  to  deposit  to  the 
credit  of  this  fund  between  5  and  10  per  cent  of  their 
monthly  earnings,  and  the  combine  at  once  adds  the 
same  amount  to  their  credit,  the  whole  amount  earning 

[269] 


interest.  On  December  31,  1919,  7,300  officials  and 
employees  were  members  of  this  fund,  and  paid  in 
a  total  of  one  and  one-half  million  guilders  during 
that  year  alone.  The  different  companies  of  the  com- 
bine added  three  million  seven  hundred  thousand 
guilders  to  the  fund,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  (1919) 
there  stood  to  the  credit  of  the  employees  about 
twenty-five  million  guilders.  This  huge  amount  is 
separately  administered  and  invested.  Each  em- 
ployee is  provided  with  his  own  pass  book,  showing 
the  amount  to  his  credit  in  the  fund.  Except  when  he 
is  discharged  for  good  cause,  he  is  entitled,  when 
leaving  the  employ  of  the  company,  to  draw  the  full 
amount,  and  even  in  the  case  of  discharge,  he  draws 
the  full  amount  of  his  own  deposits  with  accumu- 
lated interest.  In  this  industry,  also,  a  vast  army  of 
natives  is  employed. 

The  company  does  not  deserve  the  exclusive 
credit  of  this  system,  for  the  reason  that  several  of  the 
large  agricultural  companies,  such  as  the  sugar  and 
tobacco  companies,  have  a  system  which  more  or  less 
resembles  it. 

In  1 9 14  (the  last  normal  year)  there  were  exported 
from  Insulinde  approximately:  110,000,000  gallons  of 
kerosene;  76,000,000  gallons  of  benzine  and  gasoline; 
50,000,000  gallons  of  fuel  oil;  35,000,000  pounds  of 
lubricating  oil;  20,000,000  pounds  of  paraffine;  and 
400,000  pounds  of  asphaltum.  In  1919  the  total 
production  of  crude  oil  in  Insulinde  was  2,092,917 
tons. 

[270] 


On  several  occasions  the  Royal  Dutch  groups  were 
attacked  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company  and  other 
large  rivals,  but  they  were  able  to  beat  off  their  com- 
mercial antagonists. 

Rubber. — The  rubber  industry  has  attracted  the 
attention  of  European  capital  since  1839,  when  the 
American,  Air.  Goodyear,  invented  the  process  of 
vulcanization  through  sulphur. 

The  substance  which  is  known  as  rubber  or  India 
rubber  in  English,  and  caoutchouc  in  Dutch,  is  found 
in  several  of  the  native  plants,  but  only  after  the 
manufactured  substance  came  into  great  demand  for 
industrial  purposes  was  the  culture  of  rubber  trees 
undertaken  as  a  great  agricultural  enterprise. 

In  the  beginning  a  mistake  was  made  by  planting 
the  ficus  elasHca,  and  much  capital  was  lost,  as  these 
trees,  while  producing  a  certain  kind  of  rubber,  did  not 
give  a  product  of  satisfactory  quality  and  quantity. 
Since  that  time  the  Hevea  Braziliensis  has  been  exten- 
sively planted  with  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
Great  plantations  of  these  trees  are  found  in  Java  and 
Sumatra. 

The  trees  seem  to  thrive  at  different  elevations, 
but  rolhng  forest  ground  is  generally  considered  the 
most  adaptable. 

A  few  years  ago  large  American  plantations  were 
started  in  Sumatra,  where  the  labor  is  imported 
from  Java. 

Those  who  have  the  time,  when  visiting  Insulinde, 
should  endeavor  to  visit  Sumatra  and  spend  a  few 

[271] 


days  at  Medan,  the  governor's  seat  in  East  Sumatra. 
In  the  neighborhood  are  found  extensive  rubber 
plantations,  second  to  none  in  the  world.  American 
as  well  as  other  foreign  capital  is  profitably  engaged 
here.  Those  who  can  visit  only  Java  will  find  many 
flourishing  rubber  estates  on  this  island  also. 

One  of  the  best  of  these  is  the  estate  named  "  Pasir 
Ajoenan, "  in  the  Residency  of  Bantam.  It  is  beauti- 
fully located  in  the  foothills,  and  its  rolling  acres  of 
rubber  trees  offer,  especially  when  the  leaves  turn 
scarlet  before  dropping,  a  most  pleasing  sight.  Here 
one  may  see  hundreds  of  intent  laborers,  mostly 
women,  moving  from  tree  to  tree,  tapping  the  rubber 
by  cutting  with  a  sharp  knife  a  small  strip  of  the 
bark  and  inserting  a  catch  cup  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  cut. 

If  one  has  the  good  fortune  to  enjoy  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  the  manager  of  this  estate,  the  esti- 
mable Mr.  L.  C.  de  Voss  tot  Nederveen  Cappel,  one  is 
given  a  wealth  of  information  besides  a  most  hospi- 
table welcome  at  the  headquarters.  One  soon  learns 
that  managing  a  rubber  estate  is  a  skilled  undertaking 
in  the  tropics.  From  the  moment  that  the  virgin 
forest  is  being  cleared  to  the  time  when  the  sap  is 
finally  placed  in  the  vats  in  the  factory,  a  constant 
alertness  is  necessary. 

The  long-lease  system. — It  may  well  be  asked 
what  protection  is  given  to  Netherlands  and  for- 
eign capital  engaged  in  these  large  agricultural  en- 
terprises?   This  question  is   especially  appropriate 

[272] 


TAPPING  RUBBER  TREES  IN  SUMATRA 


in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  white  man  cannot  acquire 
a  fee  to  the  land. 

The  answer  is  that  some  of  the  industries  are  better 
protected  than  others.  Those  whose  aim  is  the  grow- 
ing of  sugar  or  tobacco,  which  is  dependent  on  renting 
the  soil  from  the  natives,  always  run  the  risk  that  at 
some  future  time  these  natives  may  change  their 
minds  and  either  refuse  to  rent  their  land  at  all,  or 
else  demand  such  exorbitant  rents  that  the  industries 
cannot  be  maintained  on  a  paying  basis. 

For  the  purpose  of  giving  some  kind  of  protection 
the  law  recognized  the  v-alidity  of  leases  running  from 
six  to  a  maximum  of  twenty  years,  given  by  natives 
to  Netherlands  planters.  This,  however,  is  only  when 
each  of  these  leases  has  been  individually  approved  by 
the  Netherlands  ofl&cial  in  charge. 

The  policy  of  the  government  to  maintain  the  use 
•  of  all  cultivated  lands,  which  are  included  within 
a  reasonable  sphere  of  the  dessas,  definitely  and  per- 
manently for  the  natives,  is  so  well  established  on 
historical  as  well  as  on  moral  and  equitable  grounds 
that  there  is  not  a  remote  chance  that  this  plan  will 
be  changed.  It  may  even  be  assumed  that  this 
agrarian  poHcy  of  the  government  will  be  strengthened, 
and  that,  as  the  growing  population  may  need  more 
lands  for  its  own  existence,  the  government  will  allow 
the  boundaries  of  the  dessa  lands  to  be  gradually 
extended  into  what  are  now  called  domain  lands. 

As  was  pointed  out  in  a  former  chapter,  there  is 
still  a  remnant  of  rights  in  fee  simple  absolute  to  the 

[273] 


soil,  held  by  Europeans,  which  was  granted  under 
Governors  General  Daendels  and  Raffles.  These 
rights,  however,  are  continuously  condemned  by  the 
government  under  eminent  domain  proceedings,  and, 
inasmuch  as  the  government  pays  only  the  true  and 
actual  value,  it  is  very  dangerous  to  purchase  land 
under  this  ancient  fee  simple  absolute,  for  the  buyer 
is  liable  to  be  deposed  at  any  time,  and  the  price  which 
the  government  gives  may  be  less  than  that  which 
he  paid. 

However,  there  are  vast  tracts  of  land  which  for 
years,  and  possibly  for  centuries  to  come,  will  not  be 
needed  for  these  native  purposes,  and  these  lands  offer 
a  large  field  for  investment  to  foreign  capital.  The 
government  does  not  part  with  the  title  to  these  lands. 
It  could  not,  for  it  considers  itself  the  trustee  obligated 
to  hold  the  final  title  forever  in  trust  for  the  natives 
and  their  future  wants,  but  in  the  meantime  it  grants 
long-lease  rights  to  white  people. 

For  the  purpose  of  these  long-lease  rights  the 
territory  of  InsuHnde  is  divided  into  two  main  divi- 
sions: (i)  the  lands  which  are  under  direct  Nether- 
lands rule;  and  (2)  the  lands  which  are  still  under 
quahfied  native  rule,  with  Dutch  supervision,  so-called 
seK-governing  communities. 

The  principal  of  obtaining  leases  on  either  division 
of  the  territory,  while  the  same  in  general,  varies  in 
details. 

I.  In  the  territory  directly  under  Dutch  rule  the 
granting  of  long-lease  rights  is  regulated  under  the 

.[274] 


agrarian  law  of  April  9,  1870.  This  law  provides  that 
no  leases  shall  be  granted  for  a  longer  period  than 
seventy-five  years;  that  the  governor  general,  or  his 
deputy,  the  director  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
shall  grant  the  leases,  and  that  before  this  is  done,  the 
land  must  be  surveyed  and  mapped,  and  that,  as  a 
general  rule,  not  more  than  five  hundred  houws  (eight 
hundred  and  seventy-five  acres)  shall  be  given  under 
one  surveyed  right.  Several  of  these  surveys  may  be 
united  into  one  leasehold. 

In  1 913  and  19 14  additional  ordinances  and  decrees 
were  promulgated,  further  regulating  the  granting  of 
these  rights,  while  Book  II  of  the  Civil  Code  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  was  likewise  made  applicable. 

The  leases  are  generally  for  agricultural  purposes 
only,  and  are  extended  to  Dutch  subjects  or  citizens 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  only,  or  otherwise  to  corpora- 
tions or  copartnerships  established  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  of  the  mother  country  or  the  Colonies. 
There  is,  however,  nothing  in  the  law  which  prevents 
foreign  capital  from  participating  in  these  corpora- 
tions or  copartnerships.  The  law  simply  requires 
that  the  articles  of  these  corporations  or  copartner- 
ships be  drawn  up  and  approved  under  the  Nether- 
lands or  Netherlands  East  Indian  law,  and  that  they 
have  their  principal  place  of  business  in  the  Nether- 
lands or  the  Netherlands  East  Indies,  also  that  some 
of  the  directors  be  residents. 

A  yearly  rental  must  be  paid  to  the  government 
by  long-leaseholders,  which  is  called  "canon,"  and 

[275] 


which  usually  starts  five  years  after  the  granting  of 
the  lease,  giving  the  holder  an  opportunity  to  bring 
his  land  under  cultivation  and  derive  some  profit 
therefrom  before  his  pa^rments  begin. 

The  leaseholder  may  not  transfer  his  right  without 
the  permission  of  the  chief  of  the  department,  except 
when  all  rents  and  taxes  have  been  paid;  neither  can 
he  relinquish  his  right  without  the  foregoing  consent; 
and  he  is  fined  in  case  he  does  not  promptly  pay  to  the 
state  treasury  the  amounts  of  the  canon,  when  they 
become  due.  He  often  runs  the  chance  that  his  lease 
may  be  forfeited  for  non-payment  of  rent,  or  if  he 
fails  to  bring  yearly  under  cultivation  that  part  of  the 
ground  stipulated  in  the  leasehold.  There  are  several 
other  minor  stipulations,  for  instance,  that  he  cannot 
construct  water-works  without  special  permit,  etc. 

A  person  desiring  to  obtain  one  of  these  long- 
leaseholds  must  file  a  written  petition,  directed  to  the 
governor  general,  and  this  request  must  be  accom- 
panied by  a  survey,  made  by  the  official  surveyor,  at 
the  expense  of  the  petitioner.  A  map  must  accompany 
the  petition.  The  petition  must  be  handed  to  the 
resident  or  governor  of  the  province,  who  thereupon 
places  the  same  before  a  permanent  commission, 
charged  with  the  local  examination  of  long-lease 
requests.  If  there  appear  to  be  no  serious  obstacles 
to  the  granting  of  the  request,  notice  of  the  petition 
is  posted  in  public  places  in  the  dessas  and  neighboring 
villages,  with  the  information  that  the  population  has 
thirty  days  in  which  to  file  protest  if  it  so  desires. 

[276] 


In  the  meantime  the  local  commission  aforesaid 
makes  a  thorough  examination  and  incorporates  the 
results  in  a  report.  Likewise  the  protest  of  the 
population,  if  any,  is  incorporated  in  this  report,  and 
finally  the  commission  adds  its  recommendation, 
which  includes  the  amount  which  should  be  paid 
yearly  as  canon.  The  petition  with  the  reports  are 
laid  before  the  resident,  who,  if  he  so  desires,  asks  for 
additional  opinions  from  the  division  heads  of  irriga- 
tion, or  forestry  service,  etc.,  and  finally  the  whole 
matter  is  sent  to  the  governor  general  for  decision. 

If  the  decision  is  favorable,  the  decree  of  the 
governor  general  stipulates  that  further  surveys  must 
be  made  before  the  final  rights  are  granted,  and  it  may 
Hkewise  demand  that  any  indemnification  due  to  the 
population  of  a  certain  dessa  be  paid  before  the 
concession  is  granted. 

After  a  few  more  formalities  have  been  complied 
with,  all  of  which  tend  toward  the  protection  of  the 
native  dessas,  the  lease  becomes  effective.  It  is  then 
recorded  on  the  public  registers,  and  a  legal  leasehold 
deed  is  issued. 

The  yearly  rent  as  a  rule  is  very  reasonable,  sel- 
dom over  one  guilder  (normal  exchangfe  40  cents  in 
American  money)  per  bouw,  with  an  exemption  from 
payment  of  this  amount  for  the  five  or  sometimes 
ten  years. 

2.  In  the  self-governing  communities  concessions 
are  granted  instead  of  leaseholds.  These  concessions, 
however,  very  much  resemble  the  leaseholds  prevailing 

[277] 


in  the  territories  under  direct  government.  For 
instance  they,  Kke  the  others,  cannot  be  granted  for 
more  than  seventy-five  years,  and  in  all  cases  they 
must  be  granted  by  the  native  ruler  of  the  countryside 
and  approved  by  the  Dutch  resident  or  governor,  or 
if  the  central  government  should  assume  the  function 
of  granting  rights,  the  lease  is  granted  by  the  local 
government  official  in  the  name  of  the  governor 
general. 

Generally  speaking,  only  Dutch  subjects  or  Dutch 
corporations  and  copartnerships  can  obtain  these 
concessions,  but  an  exception  has  been  made  on  the 
east  coast  of  Sumatra  (Deli,  etc.),  where  foreigners 
and  foreign  corporations  and  copartnerships  are 
placed  on  the  same  footing  as  the  Netherlanders. 

In  every  case  where  the  long-term  lease  or  the 
concession  is  granted,  if  the  leaseholder  or  conces- 
sionaire Hves  up  to  the  spirit  and  letter  of  the  contract, 
he  enjoys  the  fullest  protection  of  the  Dutch  law. 


[278] 


CHAPTER  XII. 
INSULINDE 


THE  FUTURE  OF 


Java  a  paradise — Aloen-aloen — The  Parisiennes  of  the  Orient — 
The  plantations — 'The  fish  ponds — The  appearance  of  an 
Arcadia — Industrial  unrest — The  public  press  and  trades 
unions — Division  of  opinion — Conservatives — Liberals — Com- 
parison of  natives  and  American  negroes — Liberals  believe  cure 
for  unrest  lies  in  (i)  sensible  education,  (2)  more  political 
autonomy,  (3)  better  social  and  financial  conditions;  conflict 
of  capital  and  labor — "Lock  outs"  and  strikes  in  the  United 
States — Necessity  of  government  protection  in  Insulinde — 
Probable  future  methods  of  protection  are  (i)  fixing  minimum 
wages  and  maximum  hours  of  labor,  (2)  fixing  surplus  profits; 
law  of  supply  and  demand — Minimum  wage  in  the  United 
States — Deficit  of  250,000,000  guilders  in  Java — Profits  of 
agricultural  enterprises — Risks  of  these  enterprises — Dangers 
of  unwise  taxation — ^Dangers  of  paternalistic  government — • 
The  inferior  paternalism  of  Russia — The  superior  paternal- 
ism of  Germany — Failure  to  awaken  social  responsibility — 
InsuHnde's  government  by  necessity  paternal — Process  of 
change  to  representative  government — Two  schools  of  indus- 
trial and  political  thought — ^Liberals — Conservatives — Great 
promise  for  future  of  Java 


THE  FUTURE  OF  INSULINDE 

NE  who  travels  on  the  great  highways  of  the 
island  of  Java/  "the  gem  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,"  travels  indeed  through  a  paradise 
the  beauty  of  which  is  unsurpassed  by  any 
other  country  on  the  globe.  The  road  winds 
through  a  lovely  landscape  where  the  sawahs  or  rice 
fields  of  the  natives,  bordered  by  the  graceful  cocoanut 
palms,  follow  one  another  in  endless  procession.  Some 
of  the  sawahs  are  level  stretches  of  irrigated  agricul- 
tural lands;  others  have  been  constructed  on  ter- 
raced grounds,  while  all  are  subdivided  into  small 
plots,  giving  the  whole  scene  the  character  of  one 
intensively  cultivated  garden.  Garbed  in  the  light 
green  color  of  the  young  rice,  or  in  the  darker  green 
of  the  taller  blades,  or  showing  the  golden  hue  of  the 
ripening  paddie,  the  sawahs  present  to  the  tourist  a 
land  rich  in  promise. 

One  sees  the  native  men  and  women  busily  engaged 
in  plowing  with  their  carabaos,  irrigating,  planting, 
or  harvesting,  as  the  season  demands.  As  one  travels 
along  the  magnificently  kept  roads,  bordered  by 
canarien  or  other  stately  trees,  one  sometimes  passes 

^  Those  who  desire  to  visit  this  Eden  will  find  a  very  competent 
and  agreeable  guide  in  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  for  Tourists' 
Travel,  Mr.  N.  A.  Wymenga.  This  gentleman  has  a  most  astonish- 
ing knowledge  of  travel  and  local  conditions  in  the  islands,  for  he 
knows  InsuHnde  from  end  to  end.  His  ofhce,  subsidized  by  the 
government,  is  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  hotels  at  Welte- 
vreden.  His  courtesy,  simplicity,  and  kindliness,  combined  with 
painstaking  thoroughness,  make  a  visit  there  a  real  joy. 

[281] 


patches  of  vancloe  trees,  producing  freely  the  famous 
flossy  kapok  of  commerce.  Beneath  them  there  are 
myriads  of  smiHng  Httle  brown  children,  capering 
and  playing  as  children  are  wont  to  do  everywhere. 
One  passes  through  dessas  and  villages,  where  young 
women,  in  the  glory  of  their  motherhood,  nurse  their 
babies  unhindered  by  false  modesty. 

In  each  httle  dessa  is  a  stately  aloen-aloen,  or 
public  gathering-place,  where,  sheltered  by  some 
magnificent  waringen  trees,  the  home  of  the  regent  or 
wedana  stands  in  dignified  aloofness.^  The  waringen 
trees  are  enormous  as  well  as  graceful,  and  of  such 
antiquity  that  several  writers  believe  that  they  were 
never  planted  artificially.  The  regents  or  native 
princes  are  supposed  to  have  selected  these  places  for 
their  residences  on  account  of  the  existence  of  these 
sacred  trees. 

In  the  Preanger  Regencies  especially,  and  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Java  generally,  the  Sundanese  inhab- 
itants give  the  impression  of  a  carefree,  if  not  gay, 
people.  The  women  of  this  race  are  truly  called  the 
Parisiennes  of  the  Orient.  Bare-footed  and  bare- 
headed, with  multicolored  sarongs,^  and  kabayas,^ 
generally  provided  with  gold  coins  for  buttons  or 
ornaments,  they  make  a  picture  never  to  be  forgotten. 

'These  aloen-aloen  remind  one  of  the  "plaza"  in  the  presidios 
of  the  old  Spanish  Colonial  times,  which  one  still  finds  in  some  of  the 
Western  American  cities. 

^  A  colored  strip  of  battik  cloth,  six  feet  long  and  about  three 
or  four  feet  wide,  wrapped  about  the  lower  part  of  the  body. 

3  A  long  waist  of  thin  white  material  worn  over  the  sarong. 
[282] 


Especially  in  the  evenings,  when  the  girls,  small 
of  stature,  but  erect  and  graceful,  stand  in  long  rows 
in  front  of  their  houses,  stamping  the  paddie  to  husk 
the  rice  and  singing  their  melodious  folk-songs,  the 
spirit  of  Java  enters  one's  soul.  Suddenly  the  native 
villages  are  left  behind,  and  one  beholds  the  great 
plantations  of  the  white  men,  where  huge  quantities 
of  produce  are  grown  for  the  world-markets.  One 
sees  shimmering  in  the  distance,  under  the  palms  and 
amid  the  bamboo  groves,  the  big  white  houses  of  the 
Dutch  planters,  and  near  by  the  numerous  out- 
buildings, reminding  one  of  the  landed  estates  of  old 
colonial  days  in  the  southern  states  of  America. 

The  scenic  beauty  is  unending  in  variety  and 
gorgeousness.  One  can  never  forget  a  visit  made  to 
the  fish  ponds  at  Garut,'  where  in  a  series  of  artificial 
lakes  a  multitude  of  colored  fishes  are  disporting 
themselves.  Each  pond  is  separated  from  its  neigh- 
bor by  levees,  planted  with  graceful  palm  trees  which 
reflect  their  lovely  images  in  the  clear  and  limpid 
waters.     Especially  on  moonlit  nights,  if  one  climbs 

'  Garut  is  a  small  city  east  of  Bandong,  connected  therewith 
by  rail  and  auto  road.  Here  is  found  one  of  the  best  hotels  in  Java, 
the  Hotel  Papandayan,  where  mine  host,  Mr.  J.  A.  C.  Hacks,  is  not 
only  willing  but  anxious  to  make  his  guests  comfortable,  and  show 
them  the  glorj'  of  the  surrounding  country.  One  who  can  spare  the 
time  should  spend  several  days,  if  not  weeks,  at  Garut,  visiting 
the  famous  craters  of  the  Papandayan  and  Kawah  Kamodjan. 

Those  who  are  visiting  Java,  or  any  other  country  where  customs, 
ideas,  and  especially  ideals  are  totally  different  from  those  prevailing 
at  home,  are  very  fortunate  indeed  when  some  inhabitant  of  the 
country,  thoroughly  imbued  with  its  spirit,  consents  to  act  as  cicerone. 

[283] 


an  eminence  and  looks  down  on  the  valleys  of  the 
Tjipanas  where  these  ponds  are  located,  one  can  easily 
imagine  that  this  is  fairjdand. 

No  matter  which  way  one  travels  in  the  early 
morning,  one  meets  a  multitude  of  natives  inbound  for 
the  pasars  or  markets^  in  the  towTis  and  villages,  or 
outbound  for  their  sawahs.  In  the  evening  the  two 
processions  are  repeated. 

One  or  two  days  a  week  are  devoted  to  the  pasar 
in  each  village.  These  days  are  always  important  in 
the  economic  life  of  the  villagers,  who  flock  together 
from  the  surrounding  country,  offering  a  multitude  of 
articles  for  sale,  such  as  meat,  poultry,  rice,  spices, 
notions,  wearing  apparel,  in  fact  everything  that  is 
produced  on  the  farms  or  in  the  homes.  Formerly 
a  tax  was  le\'ied,  a  small  percentage  on  all  sales.  The 
right  to  collect  this  tax  was  generally  "farmed  out" 
to  Chinese  who  were  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  the 


How  much  one  learns  in  a  few  hours  that  would  otherwise  take 
months  of  obsen'ation  and  study! 

During  their  travels  in  the  Orient,  the  writer  and  his  party 
were  singularly  fortunate  in  that  respect.  At  Garut,  Mr.  J.  F. 
Waal,  managing  director  of  the  important  commercial  firm  of  Deuti- 
kom  &  Waal  of  Bandong,  a  gentleman  who  has  Hved  for  years  in 
Java,  not  only  conducted  them  personally  from  Bandong  to  Garut, 
but  remained  there  several  days  to  see  that  the  itinerary  covered  the 
most  striking  points  of  interest.  He  combined  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  native  language  with  love  for  the  beauties  of  nature  in 
the  place  of  his  residence.  It  was  chiefly  due  to  his  sustained  kind- 
ness that  we  saw  this  part  of  Java  in  its  full  glory  and  beauty. 

'  By  passer,  passar,  or  pasar  is  indicated  the  public  market- 
place.   The  word  is  derived  from  the  Persian  word  bazar. 

[284] 


native  population.  Since  1855  these  taxes  have  been 
abolished  and  trading  at  the  pasars  is  free  and 
unobstructed.  In  addition,  the  government  is  doing 
splendid  work  in  improving  the  market-places.  They 
are  now  provided  with  reinforced  concrete  floors,  suit- 
able roofs,  sanitary  appliances,  etc.  Order  is  main- 
tained by  the  market  police. 

The  pasars  offer  scenes  of  constantly  changing 
color.  Here  the  Chinese,  Malays,  Javanese,  Arabs, 
and  occasional  white  men  mingle  in  friendly  bartering. 

The  natives  on  the  highways  and  in  the  fields  and 
villages  seem  quiet,  contented,  and  courteous.  It  is 
seldom  that  one  sees  an  unseemly  act  or  hears  a  rough 
word.  One  almost  never  sees  a  native  strike  a  child 
or  even  speak  harshly  to  one.  It  is  truly  said  that  a 
Javanese,  no  matter  how  humble,  is  a  gentleman  in 
his  manners.     Verily  Java  seems  to  be  an  Arcadia. 

However,  nothing  is  perfect  in  this  world,  and 
Insulinde  is  no  exception  to  the  rule.  For  even  in 
this  Arcadia  the  serpent  of  discontent  has  entered. 
How  could  it  be  otherwise  ?  This  spirit  of  discontent 
now  sweeps  over  the  whole  world.  It  is  felt  in  Japan 
as  well  as  in  France,  in  Soviet  Russia,  as  well  as  in 
conservative  China.  It  is  the  spirit  which  makes  the 
man  in  the  street  demand  a  larger  share  of  the  good 
things  of  this  world  than  he  has  had  before.  It  is 
the  spirit  of  self-determination  politically,  no  matter 
whether  the  people  are  ripe  for  self-government  or  not. 
Such  feelings  are  epidemic  and  contagious.  How 
then  could  Java  in  particular,  and  Insulinde  in  general, 

[285] 


escape  the  backwash  in  this  tide  of  the  world's 
thought  ?  Even  if  it  could,  it  should  not;  for  reason- 
able discontent  must  forever  be  the  mother  of  reason- 
able progress.  That  such  a  feeling  will  materially 
affect  the  future  of  this  Island  Empire  must  be  ob- 
vious. 

The  feeling  of  unrest  expresses  itself  in  Insulinde 
in  much  the  same  way  that  it  does  all  over  the  rest  of 
the  world.  It  is  evidenced  by  a  demand  for  greater 
political  freedom,  a  demand  for  better  social  condi- 
tions, and  a  demand  especially  for  better  financial 
conditions.  The  cry  for  greater  political  freedom 
finds  vent  in  two  movements: 

a)  A  general  movement,  demanding  more  accen- 
tuated autonomy  in  all  local  matters,  and  less  interfer- 
ence from  the  mother  country  in  those  matters  which 
pertain  particularly  to  Insulinde.  In  this  demand 
the  educated  colored  brethren  are  supported  by  a 
material  part  of  the  white  population,  and  by  many 
voices  in  the  white  man's  daily  press  and  periodicals. 

b)  A  specific  movement,  existing  among  the 
natives,  which  finds  its  organs  of  expression  in  the 
native  press,  and  in  several  native  societies,  of  which 
the  Society  Sarakat  Islam  is  the  principal.  The 
Society  Insulinde  is  prominent  among  the  half- 
castes. 

The  demand  for  better  social  and  financial  condi- 
tions, in  other  words  the  industrial  unrest,  finds 
utterance  in  the  public  press  and  in  different  trade 
unions  and  societies  especially  devoted  to  this  aim. 

[286] 


It  may  be  remarked  here  that  these  trade  unions  and 
societies  by  no  means  have  the  vitality  which  their 
sisters  have  in  more  advanced  countries. 

It  is  a  good  omen  for  the  future  that  there  is  a 
healthy  division  of  opinion  as  to  how  to  solve  this 
vexing  problem,  for  dii  choc  des  opinions  jaillit  la 
veriie  is  a  maxim  especially  applicable  to  public 
politics.  Those  whose  interests  are  more  directly 
affected  by  the  social,  industrial,  and  financial 
demands  of  the  population  are  firmly  convinced  that 
this  mo\'ement  is  primarily  a  political  one,  and  they 
deny  its  industrial  character.  Inasmuch  as  these 
gentlemen  are  of  necessity  large  property  owners,  or 
at  least  represent  large  property  interests,  they  are 
naturally  conservative  in  their  political  views,  and 
may  therefore  be  called  the  Conservatives.  They 
blame  the  so-called  political  unrest  almost  entirely  on 
the  "too  liberal"  views  which  the  government  holds, 
and  which  they  believe  to  be  detrimental  to  the  best 
interests  of  all  concerned.  Their  theory  is  largely 
based  on  the  thought  that  the  only  government  suit- 
able to  a  colony  is  a  strong  centralized  government, 
leaning  for  its  main  support  on  powerful  battalions, 
preferably  with  fixed  bayonets.  It  finds  its  counter- 
part in  the  implicit  trust  which  the  old  conservative 
corporation  managers  in  other  countries  place  in  the 
policeman's  club  to  settle  all  industrial  differences. 

It  is  probably  needless  to  say  that  the  majority  of 
the  old  planters  and  industrials  belong  to  this  school 
of  thought,  and,  as  is  the  wont  of  their  class,  they 

[287] 


are  not  bashful  about  expressing  their  views.  They 
witnessed  "the  good  old  times"  when  natives  were 
subservient  to  white  people,  even  to  the  extent  of 
crouching  in  the  dust  when  the  white  children  and 
their  baboes  (colored  nurses)  passed  by. 

These  big  industrials  are  the  lions  of  the  con- 
servative movement.  They  are  firmly  convinced  that 
the  good  God  has  made  some  people  to  direct  and  rule 
while  others  were  destined  to  be  hewers  of  wood  and 
carriers  of  water;  that  no  good  can  come  of  a  policy 
the  ultimate  aim  of  which  is  the  transformation  of 
good  burden-carriers  into  indifferent  if  not  vicious 
aspirants  to  higher  ideals — ideals  which  the  burden- 
carriers  will  never  be  able  to  reach  and  of  which  they 
would  soon  tire,  should  they  make  the  effort.  They 
are  likewise  convinced  that  such  a  policy  would  breed 
in  the  people  a  desire  to  fill  positions  in  the  scheme  of 
things  for  which  nature  never  intended  them ;  that  it 
would  teach  them  to  look  with  contempt  on  the  useful 
manual  work  for  which  they  are  best  fitted.  This 
class  of  conservatives  has  its  sycophants,  flatterers, 
and  retainers,  just  as  the  lion  has  the  jackal  to  hunt 
in  its  tracks.  But  their  influence  is  negligible,  and 
their  opinions  variable  at  the  best. 

As  for  the  true  exponents  of  this  conservative 
theory,  it  is  idle  to  say  that  they  are  all  prompted  by 
selfish  and  material  motives.  On  the  contrary,  many 
of  these  gentlemen  have  a  profound  knowledge  of  the 
psychology  of  the  natives  of  Insulinde,  a  knowledge 
based  on  years  and  years  of  close  contact,  study, 

[288] 


and  observation.  It  is  especially  due  to  their  energy, 
courage,  and  foresight,  that  a  splendid  industrial 
empire  was  built.  We  may  well  believe  that  they 
are  firmly  convinced  of  the  righteousness  of  their 
arguments. 

To  prove  their  contentions,  they  point  with 
considerable  force  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  planta- 
tion managers  have  made  an  earnest  effort  to  better 
the  living  and  moral  conditions  of  the  natives;  that 
they  have  built  model  kampongs  where  their  laborers 
and  families  could  live  under  sanitary  and  otherwise 
improved  conditions;  that  their  efforts  have  met  with 
only  lukewarm  sympathy,  if  not  indifference  and 
downright  hostility,  from  the  intended  beneficiaries. 

It  is  further  pointed  out  that  the  so-called  educated 
native  is,  as  a  rule,  an  educated  impossibility;  that 
he  becomes  pompous  and  lazy;  that  he  evidences  a 
violent  love  for  all  the  white  man's  rights,  but  does 
not  welcome  even  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  the 
white  man's  duties;  that  unless  a  firm  hand  is  held 
on  the  situation,  the  agitators — full-blood  natives, 
half-breeds,  and  degenerate  whites  alike — will  con- 
tinue to  stir  up  trouble,  which  can  bring  only  disaster 
to  everyone  concerned;  that  the  native  press  is  often 
preaching  sedition,  and  inciting  people  to  rebellion, 
thereby  threatening  the  islands  with  untold  misery. 
There  are  many  other  strong  arguments  of  a  similar 
tenor,  all  of  which  are  advanced  with  energy  and 
earnestness.  Several  of  them  have  a  solid  historical 
background. 

[289] 


As  we  have  seen,  the  native  government  was  in 
the  past  a  government  of  satraps  and  petty  despots 
over  serfs  and  slaves.  The  first  white  man's  govern- 
ment was  not  much  better.  It  was  in  many  instances 
worse.  It  was  a  government  of  spoliation,  for  it  was 
essentially  mercenary.  As  the  white  man  himself 
raised  his  ideals  of  colonization,  his  government 
slowly  developed  into  a  benevolent  despotism,  but  the 
native  peoples  did  not  keep  pace;  they  clung  to  the 
idea  that  their  native  rulers  were  the  masters  and 
owners  of  their  bodies  and  souls.  Even  though  it  is 
very  evident  today  that  they  are  rulers  in  name  only, 
paid  servants  of  the  white  man  in  fact,  this  does  not 
seem  to  impress  itself  on  the  average  native. 

Even  a  cursory  observ^er  who  travels  through 
Insulinde  knows  that  the  natives  do  not  pay  the 
slightest  attention,  of  their  own  accord,  to  such  mat- 
ters as  cleaning  and  flushing,  to  sanitary  engineering, 
to  the  curbing  of  pestilence  and  dreadful  diseases. 
Take  the  white  man  away,  and  Insulinde  would  once 
more  be  the  breeding-place  of  epidemics.  Even  now, 
in  cases  of  smallpox  and  cholera  epidemics,  the  health 
service  has  little  co-operation  from  the  native  quarter, 
and  sometimes  it  is  met  with  bitter  opposition. 
Improvement  is  not  simply  a  question  of  instruction 
and  education.  The  Conservatives  remind  us  that 
the  majority  of  the  natives,  who  have  lived  for  years 
in  close  contact  with  the  Hollanders,  are  as  insanitary, 
as  superstitious,  and  as  adverse  to  progress  as  ever; 
9,lso  that  those  who  have  lived  as  servants  in  white 

[290] 


men's  homes  for  decades,  and  who  have  been  taught, 
nay  compelled,  to  employ  hygienic  methods,  promptly 
revert  to  type  when  they  are  released  from  the  white 
man's  influence. 

The  Conservatives  are  not  opposed  to  education, 
but  they  believe  that  this  education  should  be  very 
slowly  extended.  They  point  out  that  education  of 
the  native  at  present  is  generally  a  failure,  as  was  the 
education  of  the  negro  in  the  United  States  after  his 
emancipation.  Then  each  one  wished  to  be  educated 
as  a  lawyer,  a  preacher,  or  a  clerk,  with  as  little  effort 
as  possible,^  but  scorned  the  idea  of  being  trained 
along  manual  lines.  It  took  heroic  efforts  by  men 
like  Booker  T.  Washington  to  lead  their  people  out 
of  the  intellectual  bog  and  to  inspire  in  some  of  them 
that  feeling  of  nobility  of  character  which  is  always 
the  handmaiden  of  useful  endeavor  and  service  in 
this  world.  The  subject  race  in  either  case  does  not 
furnish  sufficient  intellectual  force  or  material  means 
to  satisfy  the  demand  of  their  leaders  for  racial 
improvement. 

Many  of  the  Conservatives  of  Insulinde  are  men 

of  sterling  principles  who  have  an  intimate  knowledge 

of  native  character.     They  have  devoted  the  best 

years  of  their  lives  to  useful  endeavor  in  Insulinde, 

and  have  greatly  contributed  toward  the  material 

wealth  and  the  general  improvement  of  this  Island 

'  A  counterpart  of  this  feeling  we  find  in  the  recent  demand  of 
one  of  the  sultans  who  insisted  on  a  European  university  education 
for  his  son,  although  he  had  not  even  sent  his  son  to  the  grammar 
school,  to  say  nothing  of  the  high  school. 

[291] 


Empire  and  its  inhabitants.  And  they  view  with 
alarm  the  government's  activities. 

Their  opponents,  whom  we  may  call  the  Liberals, 
claim  that  these  statements,  while  partially  true,  are 
much  exaggerated.  In  the  first  place  they  claim  that 
the  comparison  of  the  native  with  the  American  negro 
is  unfair,  inasmuch  as  the  former  stands  much  higher 
culturally  and  racially  than  the  colored  race  from 
Africa.     This  of  course  is  true. 

These  Liberals  admit  that  the  native  population 
would  slump  back  to  its  old  conditions  of  anarchy  and 
strife,  if  the  white  man's  capital  and  directing  genius 
were  taken  away;  that  it  will  take  several  centuries 
more  under  the  direction  of  the  white  race  before  these 
islands  can  take  their  place  as  an  independent  and 
orderly  organization  in  the  family  of  nations.  They 
also  admit  that  while  the  problem  of  the  education 
of  the  negro  race  was  difficult  of  solution  in  the 
American  Union,  where  the  white  people  outnumbered 
the  colored  citizens  eight  to  one,  this  problem  will 
reach  heroic  dimensions  in  a  country  like  Insulinde 
where  the  colored  population  outnumbers  the  white 
five  hundred  times. 

The  Liberals  believe  that  the  cures  for  the  unrest 
now  prevailing  in  Insulinde  are:  (i)  sensible  educa- 
tion, (2)  more  political  autonomy,  (3)  better  social 
and  financial  conditions  for  the  natives.  These  re- 
forms are  already  under  way. 

That  the  government  must  necessarily  be  extremely 
cautious  and  slow  in  guiding  this  progress  is  evident 

[292] 


to  anyone  knowing  the  Oriental  character.  Educa- 
tion must  be  not  only  scholastic,  but  vocational, 
political,  and  moral  as  well.  At  least  for  the  present, 
little  can  be  expected  from  the  initiative  of  the 
population.  The  guidance  must  come  from  the 
government.  During  the  last  two  decades,  some 
natives  have  been  educated  in  the  white  man's  ways 
with  excellent  results.  These  men  prove  to  be  good 
citizens,  and  may  become  a  strong  leaven  in  the 
native  multitude.  So  far,  however,  their  number  has 
been  small,  and  they  constitute  only  a  promise  for 
the  future. 

The  time  is  past  when  the  ruling  race  can  occupy, 
to  its  own  exclusive  satisfaction  and  profit,  the  posi- 
tion of  absentee  landlord.  As  far  as  political  evolu- 
tion is  concerned,  more  freedom  is  constantly  granted. 
There  need  be  little  or  no  doubt  that  it  will  be  granted 
just  as  fast,  and  let  us  hope  no  faster,  than  the  popula- 
tion is  prepared  to  receive  it. 

The  third  proposed  remedy  is  a  tender  point,  for 
improved  financial  conditions  for  the  natives  mean 
less  profit  and  more  taxes  for  the  white  men's  indus- 
tries. From  time  immemorial  capital  and  labor  have 
had  unity  of  interest  as  far  as  general  results  were 
concerned,  but  a  marked  diversity  of  interests  when 
it  comes  to  the  division  of  the  profits  which  accompany 
good  commercial  results. 

In  a  country  like  the  United  States,  where  a  very 
important  percentage  of  the  laboring  classes  is  organ- 
ized, this  question  is  generally  solved  by  compromise 

[293] 


between  the  representatives  of  capital  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  labor,  that  is,  the  trade-union  officials. 

If  no  compromise  can  be  reached,  employers  some- 
times use  ''lock  out"  methods,  and  labor  leaders  the 
"strike."  In  the  event  of  either,  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  really  interested  party,  though  so  far  silent  in  the 
matter,  has  the  deciding  voice.  This  party  is  of 
course  the  general  public.  It  is  now  recognized  that 
neither  a  lock  out  nor  a  strike  has  much  chance  of 
success  unless  supported  by  public  opinion. 

But  how  about  a  country  like  Insulinde  where  the 
rank  and  file  of  labor  stand  so  far  below  the  represen- 
tatives of  capital  in  intelligence  that  from  the  outset 
they  are  at  a  great  disadvantage  ?  This  disadvan- 
tage is  accentuated  because  public  opinion  in  this 
country  has  no  influence  as  it  has  in  countries  where 
the  mass  of  the  people  is  very  much  advanced. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  Insulinde,  where  the  vast 
majority  of  the  people,  the  workers,  are  intellectually 
very  inferior  to  the  small  minority,  their  employers, 
the  government  must  give  the  industrial  protection 
which  this  majority  is  unable  to  give  itself.  For  is 
not  a  good  government  always  based  on  the  principle 
of  promoting  the  most  good  for  the  greatest  number 
of  people  ?  Very  probably  the  method  of  this  protec- 
tion will  eventually  take  the  forms  of:  (i)  fixing 
minimum  wages  and  maximum  hours  of  labor;  (2) 
taxing  surplus  profits  heavily  and  progressively.  Of 
course  both  propositions  will  meet  with  determined 
opposition. 

[294] 


The  first  is  bound  to  be  looked  upon  by  the 
Conservatives  as  an  economic  heresy.  Shades  of 
Adam  Smith  and  all  the  other  ancient  political 
philosophers!  and  what  will  become  of  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand  ?  Has  it  not  been  accepted  for 
years  that  sound  political  science  always  recognizes 
that  the  price  of  any  commodity  is  regulated  by  this 
ancient  and  bewhiskered  law?  If  the  merchant  or 
the  manufacturer  has  goods  for  sale,  are  they  not  his 
commodity  ?  And  if  the  laborer  has  his  work  for  sale, 
is  that  not  his  commodity  ?  Fortunately  for  the  good 
of  mankind,  it  is  not.  As  august  a  body  as  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  the  President  concur- 
ring, has  solemnly  declared,  within  the  last  few  years, 
that  by  Article  6  of  the  Clayton  Act,  human  labor  is 
no  commodity  or  article  of  commerce.^ 

One  is  often  earnestly  assured  that  the  native  of 
Java  does  not  care  for  higher  wages;  that  if  he 
received  them,  he  would  work  just  so  much  less;  that 
it  would  simply  bring  down  upon  him  a  horde  of  poor 
relatives  to  squat  in  his  bamboo  house  and  eat  him 
out  of  house  and  home,  etc. 

These  are  old  arguments,  such  as  it  may  safely  be 
presumed  were  used  by  the  members  of  the  Babylo- 
nian Chamber  of  Commerce  when  they  resisted  a 
demand  for  higher  wages.  They  remind  one  some- 
what of  the  arguments  which  were  used  at  the  time 
when  the  labor  unions  in  the  United  States  came  to 

» Samuel  Gompers,  the  veteran  president  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  called  this  act  the  Magna  Charta  of  labor. 

[295] 


the  rescue  of  the  shopgirls,  demanding  higher  wages, 
and  especially  a  stated  minimum  wage,  shorter  hours, 
better  shop  conditions,  such  as  chairs  where  they 
might  sit  when  not  occupied  in  waiting  on  customers, 
decent  lunch-  and  rest-rooms,  etc. 

Well-upholstered  dowagers  came  together  in  their 
clubs,  solemnly  supporting  the  pronunciamentos  of 
well-fed  employers  to  the  effect  that  the  proposed 
conditions,  if  granted,  would  eventually  prove  to  be 
detrimental  to  the  workers  themselves,  for  they — all 
supposedly  young  and  beautiful  girls — would  have  too 
much  free  time  on  their  hands,  would  leave  the  shop 
earlier,  and  would  flirt  with  disreputable  men,  while 
promenading  the  streets,  etc.,  ad  nauseam.  The  wages 
were  raised  and  the  hours  were  shortened,  but  none  of 
the  predicted  calamities  of  the  alarmists  came  to  pass. 

In  Insulinde  a  very  difficult  factor  enters  the  labor 
situation,  and  that  is  the  lack  of  energy  on  the  part  of 
the  native  workmen.  This  is  a  natural  result  of  the 
ease  with  which  the  laborer  can  satisfy  his  reasonable 
desires  and  wants. 

Some  extremists  in  the  movement  for  bettering 
native  conditions  are  advocates  of  a  minimum  wage 
which  is  several  times  higher  than  that  paid  now. 
Experienced  planters  and  industrialists  point  out  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  pay  the  suggested  wages, 
and  that  if  they  were  insisted  upon,  the  result  would 
be  the  replacement  of  native  labor  by  Chinese  coolies. 
The  latter  are  more  industrious,  and  even  at  higher 
wages  their  greater  diligence  would  assure  the  business 

[296] 


A  NATIVE  BELLE  (ISLAND  OF  BALI) 


a  remunerative  basis.  In  other  words  the  claim  is 
that  theory  and  practice  should  be  very  carefully 
reconciled,  as  otherwise  extreme  measures  might  de- 
feat the  very  purpose  for  which  they  were  adopted. 

As  far  as  taxes  are  concerned,  who  is  not  opposed 
to  an  increase  when  he  has  to  pay  these  taxes  himself  ? 
Such  taxes  are  always  "oppressive,  inequitable,  and 
unjust."  Only  those  which  touch  our  neighbors  or 
our  dearest  enemies,  and  not  us,  are  "statesmanlike 
in  their  conception,  highly  moral  and  beneficial"  in 
their  execution. 

But  the  government  of  Insujinde" needs  money  and 
needs  it  badly,  for  notwithstanding  that  it  has  taxed 
even  its  own  officials  and  all  the  white  persons  living 
in  the  Indies  in  almost  every  conceivable  way,  still  it 
has  failed  to  raise  sufficient  revenue  to  carry  out  its 
purposes.  For  the  last  ten  years  the  deficit  has 
amounted  to  250,000,000  guilders,  which  amount  will 
increase  to  362,000,000  guilders  by  the  end  of  this  year. 

In  the  meantime,  some  of  the  great  agricultural 
enterprises  have  made  huge  profits,  profits  which  by 
no  means  are  indicated  by  the  dividends  they  have 
paid,  for,  in  accordance  with  the  prevalent  Dutch 
financiering,  large  sums  are  continually  used  either 
for  the  creation  of  reserv^es  or  for  the  "writing  off" 
process,  and  sometimes  for  both.' 

■  To  give  only  one  example:  The  average  dividend  for  the  last 
six  years,  of  nine  of  the  most  important  tobacco  companies,  has 
been  a  fraction  more  than  28  per  cent  per  year.  Some  companies 
have  paid  in  other  years  as  high  as  30,  60,  or  even  80  per  cent. 

[297] 


Taxation,  to  be  sure,  is  one  of  the  most  perilous 
enterprises  in  which  a  government  can  indulge.  This 
is  especially  true  in  Insulinde  for  the  reason  that 
capital  has  already  taken  considerable  risks,  such  as 
lack  of  dividends  in  the  first  years,  plant  and  insect 
diseases,  unstable  markets  (see  sugar,  rubber,  etc.), 
and  unless  capital  gets  a  liberal  return  when  all  condi- 
tions are  favorable  it  may  not  wish  to  invest  at  all. 
In  other  words,  the  govermnent  must  step  warily,  lest 
it  kill  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs.  Moreover, 
living  conditions  in  the  tropics  are  such  that  the  white 
men  who  go  there  for  twenty  years,  more  or  less,  to 
engage  in  these  enterprises  naturally  expect  a  far  more 
substantial  return  for  their  endeavors  than  if  they  had 
remained  in  their  own  country  where  conditions  were 
more  to  their  taste.  Still  it  becomes  more  and  more 
evident  that  these  large  industries  are  the  ones  which 
will  eventually  have  to  pay  the  lion's  share  of  the 
pecuniary  benefits  derived  from  the  stability  of  social 
conditions.^ 

One  of  the  difficulties  to  be  solved  finds  its  origin 
in  the  very  form  of  government  now  existing. 
Paternalism  has  always  within  its  own  organism  the 
seeds  of  great  danger,  for  it  almost  invariably  fails  to 
develop  in  its  beneficiaries  that  feeling  of  individual 
social  consciousness  so  necessary  for  the  sound 
advancement  of  the  people.     The  inferior  paternalism 

'  Recently  a  progressive  income  tax  has  been  enacted  which, 
though  in  a  very  mild  way  only,  endeavors  to  reach  these  surplus 
profits. 

[298] 


of  former  Russia,  the  superior  one  in  the  former 
German  Empire  prove  this. 

In  Russia  the  "Little  White  Father"  was  pre- 
sumed to  be  the  fountain-head  of  all  governmental 
endeavors,  and  the  result  was  a  lack  of  all  govern- 
mental responsibilities  in  the  masses.  Even  today 
the  Soviet  government  cannot  awaken  the  great  bulk 
of  the  peasantry  to  anything  which  looks  like  active 
participation.  The  peasant  was  land-hungry  for 
centuries.  He  got  his  land,  but  he  knows  that  he 
holds  title  by  possession  only,  and  has  no  real  legal 
title.  He  realizes  that  any  return  of  the  old  regime, 
in  whatever  form,  will  cancel  his  possessory  title,  and 
he  is  therefore  opposed  to  any  change  which  would 
deprive  him  of  his  cherished  possession.  He  has  the 
strongest  possible  incentive  actively  to  support  and 
participate  in  the  present  government,  but  he  does 
nothing  of  the  kind,  allowing  a  small  but  compact 
organization  to  ride  him. 

In  Germany  there  was  the  most  highly  and 
scientifically  developed  paternalism  possible.  It  gave 
magnificent  service  to  the  people.  Bismarck  was 
convinced  that  a  well-satisfied  laboring  population 
was  the  best  agency  to  bring  the  Fatherland  to  great- 
ness, and  he  instituted  this  form  of  government.  But 
it  brought  war,  and  war  brought  defeat  and  chaos, 
for  the  great  mass  of  the  people  had  not  been  taught 
social  responsibility. 

Both  cases  prove  that  a  government  can  only  lead. 
As  soon  as  it  begins  to  drive,  it  kills  in  the  hearts  of 

[299] 


the  people  the  very  essence  of  self-reliance  and  social 
responsibility  so  necessary  for  their  continuous 
success. 

Insulinde's  government  is  paternalistic.  Of  course 
it  is.  The  country  could  not  have  any  other  form  of 
government  at  the  present  time  or  in  the  past,  and  be 
able  to  maintain  order  and  promote  progress.  Of 
necessity  this  paternalism  affects  not  only  the  natives 
but  also  the  white  inhabitants,  the  Dutch  merchant, 
agriculturist,  manufacturer,  etc.,  who,  while  deriving 
on  the  one  hand  all  the  benefits  of  such  a  form  of 
government,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  unconsciously 
handicapped  by  its  drawbacks..  One  of  these  draw- 
backs is  the  lack  of  any  feeling  of  moral  and  social 
responsibility  toward  the  man  in  the  street,  who  in 
this  case  is  of  course  the  native  worker.  The  idea  that 
a  substantial  part  of  the  rich  profits  of  enterprise — 
if  such  profits  there  be — should  be  devoted,  not  as 
a  matter  of  charity  but  as  a  matter  of  simple  justice, 
to  public  welfare  work  such  as  schools,  visiting  nurses, 
local  private  hospital  clinics,  dispensaries,  the  encour- 
agement of  native  arts,  etc.,  does  not  seem  to  have 
occurred  to  many  of  the  corporation  officials. 

This  does  not  mean  that  there  are  no  corporations 
which  voluntarily  undertake  such  welfare  work.  The 
hospitals  of  almost  all  the  large  tobacco  companies, 
especially  in  Sumatra,  are  models  which  attract  the 
attention  of  people  even  outside  the  boundaries  of 
Insulinde.  The  Royal  Dutch  Shell  group  of  oil 
companies  are  also  splendid  examples  on  account  of 

[300] 


the  care  which  they  take  of  their  native  employees. 
It  is  therefore  with  full  acknowledgment  of  what  has 
already  been  done  in  this  line  that  the  suggestion  is 
made  that  those  who  are  lagging  behind  in  voluntary 
endeavor  should  be  placed  under  some  compulsory 
direction. 

The  line  of  demarkation  between  the  schools  of 
political  and  industrial  thought  is  pretty  accurately 
ascertainable.  If  the  country's  form  of  government 
had  already  accomplished  its  change  from  paternalism 
into  a  more  representative  government,  it  would  be 
safe  to  assume  that  these  schools  would  soon  evolve 
into  two  established  political  parties,  as  at  some  time 
in  the  future  they  very  likely  will.  But  while  one 
may  not  as  yet  speak  of  political  parties  in  the 
Indies,  as  this  term  is  understood  in  Western  coun- 
tries, still  the  difference  of  opinion  between  the  adher- 
ents of  the  schools  already  has  all  the  earmarks  of 
a  healthy  political  strife. 

The  Conservatives,  naturally,  are  firmly  and  hon- 
estly convinced  that  the  Liberals  are  well-meaning 
gentlemen  who  indulge  in  day-dreams  which,  if 
realized,  will  mean  the  beginning  of  total  disaster. 

The  Liberals  are  not  slow  in  returning  the  compli- 
ment by  asserting  that  the  Conservatives  are  often 
hide-bound  income-producers,  who  refuse  to  recognize 
the  fact  that  it  is  always  a  mistake  to  withhold 
the  granting  of  reforms  until  they  are  rebelliously 
demanded;  that  the  government  and  the  large  inter- 
ests should  keep  well  abreast  of  popular  evolution  to 

[301] 


prevent  a  longing  for  revolution.  They  point  out  that 
the  future  of  Insulinde  is  assured,  if  the  social  condi- 
tions of  the  natives  are  steadily  and  progressively 
improved;  that  with  improved  social  conditions 
political  unrest  will  materially  diminish,  if  not 
disappear. 

The  element  in  the  Liberal  party  which  is  bound 
to  exercise  the  most  potent  influence  in  the  future  is 
composed  of  practical  men  who  recognize  the  necessity 
of  facing  facts  as  distinguished  from  theories  only. 
The  Conservatives  are  all  rowing  against  the  tide  of 
public  opinion,  and  some  of  the  Liberals  somewhat 
ahead  of  it.  It  now  rests  with  the  element  last 
mentioned  to  assume  a  middle  course,  and  influence 
their  brethren  to  make  haste  slowly,  lest  in  their 
enthusiasm  their  cause  be  lost.  These  men,  who  are 
generally  the  most  experienced  in  Insulinde  matters, 
agree  with  the  more  decided  element  of  their  school, 
that  the  tide  of  improvement  should  never  be  dammed, 
in  fact  they  heartily  favor  a  progressive  system  of 
improvement.  Still  from  the  depths  of  their  past 
experience  they  sound  a  note  of  warning.  They  fear 
too  fast  a  tempo  of  progress.  They  point  out  that 
many  of  the  natives,  when  relieved  from  proper  re- 
straint, do  not  become  orderly  reformers,  but  often 
destroyers;  that  much  freedom  too  hastily  granted 
will  prove  destructive  instead  of  constructive  for 
them. 

So  far  many  of  the  natives  who  have  arisen  from 
the  population,  proclaiming  themselves  messiahs  of 

[302] 


the  better  things  to  come,  have  unfortunately  proved 
to  be  unworthy  stewards  of  the  talents  intrusted  to 
them  by  their  confiding  countrymen.  Absconding 
with  funds  belonging  to  the  different  lodges  of  the 
Sarakat  Islam  is  not  an  unusual  thing  with  these 
trusted  leaders. 

While  men  of  moderate  views  subscribe  to  the 
theory  of  constant  improvement  and  liberation,  they 
know  that  they  must  keep  progress  in  Insulinde  within 
reasonable  bounds.  In  the  course  of  human  events 
these  men  and  their  followers  will  doubtless  be  called 
upon  to  furnish  the  energy  and  the  brains  to  lead  the 
natives  to  the  promised  land.  And  in  the  gardens  of 
this  promised  land  must  be  cultivated  the  flowers  of 
self-discipline,  responsibility,  and  duty.  Much  culti- 
vation is  needed,  for  these  blooms  are  rare  in  the 
average  native's  life. 

In  the  meantime  the  government  of  Insulinde  is 
slowly  becoming  less  centralized  and  more  represen- 
tative in  form.  With  greater  political  rights  and 
duties  will  come  a  keener  feeling  of  social  account- 
ability. The  ballot-box  has  always  been  a  wonder- 
ful accelerator  of  public  conscience  toward  social  and 
industrial  justice. 

Insulinde  as  a  whole,  and  Java  in  particular,  is 
gradually  becoming  more  self-sustaining  industrially. 
In  the  last  few  decades,  important  cement  plants  have 
been  started  and  are  now  in  successful  operation. 
Sulphuric  acid,  that  barometer  of  industrial  develop- 
ment, is  being  manufactured  in  Java,  and  slowly  but 

[303] 


surely  the  islands  are  emerging  from  their  cocoon  state 
as  an  agricultural  colony/ 

Insulinde  today  provides  a  shining  example  of 
good  white  man's  government  among  a  native  popula- 
tion. Insulinde  of  tomorrow  is  bound  to  become  a 
still  more  brilliant  star  in  the  constellation  of  colonial 
governments.  As  far  as  the  past  stewardship  of  the 
Netherlands  is  concerned,  the  verdict  of  mankind 
cannot  be  otherwise  than  that  of  the  Lord,  when  he 
spoke  to  his  servants  to  whom  he  had  intrusted  his 
talents:  "Well  done,  thou  good  and  faithful  servant, 
thou  hast  been  faithful  over  a  few  things,  I  will  make 
thee  ruler  over  many."  For  no  matter  how  numerous 
these  intrusted  interests  have  been  in  the  past,  they 
are  few  compared  with  the  many  which  will  develop 
in  the  future.  The  greater  part  of  these  islands 
stands  only  on  the  threshold  of  its  development. 

The  good  work  of  the  past,  the  better  work  of  the 
present,  will  go  on  in  the  future  to  the  benefit  of 
Insulinde  and  the  mother  country  alike — aye,  to  the 

'  That  the  United  States  will  be  an  important  factor  in  the 
industrial  development  of  Insulinde  is  proved  by  statistics  of  the 
last  eight  years: 


Year 


Exports  from  Dutch 

East  Indies  to  the 

United  States 


Imports  from  United 

States  to  Dutch 

East  Indies 


1912-13 
1913-14 
1914-15 
1915-16 
1916-17 
1917-18 
1918-19 
1919-20 


$  6,221,954 
5,334,361 
9,245,784 
27,716,589 
62,011,236 
79,314,233 
71,036,606 
95,801,266 


[304] 


$  3,151,693 

3,676,89s 

2,771,779 

7,401,026 

21,139,305 

19,777,504 

44,845,561 

45,647,245 


benefit  of  humanity.    And  the  best  omen  for  the. 
coming  years  is  that  the  banner  which  the  Netherlands 
holds  aloft  in  the  Island  Empire  is  still  emblazoned 
with  the  motto:    "Never  despair,  for  great  work  is 
still  to  be  done  in  the  Indies!" 


[305] 


>•   sui. 


L 


Makassar> 


SOUBA 

Oft 

SANDALWOQO    /Si 


:z: 


MAP    OF 

JAVA 

AM) 

MADURA 

(Netherlands  East-Indies) 
Scale  of  Miles 


0     S    to         20         30         40         50         60 


'^.iAD  U  R  A 


The  Ctorae  £  Csun  Ok,  Ch'cago     q' 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abjuration,  Act  of,  63 

Achinese,  142 

Adat,  93,  167,  176,  177,  179,  249 

Agrarian  law,  275 

Agricultural  information,  234  ff. 

Alang-alang,  26 

d'Albreo,  Antonio,  56 

Alexandria,  61,  132 

"Alfoers,"  34,  55 

Aloen-doen,  282 

Amboina,  104, 149 

Ambon,  45,  55 

Amiens,  Treaty  of,  124 

American  Commonwealth,  4; 
concessionnaires,  205;  for- 
estry, 238;  oil  workers,  268; 
orators  and  writers,  9;  psy- 
chology, 7;   thought,  9-1 I 

Amfioen  Society,  117  f. 

Ampel,  55 

Amsterdam,  xiii,  62,  81, 127,  255, 

260,  265;  Quay,  221 
Ananas,  27 
Anjer,  152 
Anoesapati,  48 
Antilles,  The,  68 
Antwerp,  61,  148 
Arabic  characters,  33 
Arabs,  32,  36,  54,  90,  181,  228 
"I'Archipel  Asiatique,"  16 
Ardjuna  Wiii'aha,  42 
"Arfaks,"34 
Arragon,  Admiral  of,  79 
Asiatic  Council,  124 
Assamica,  262 
Atjeh,    55;     rebellion    in,    159; 

Sultan  of,  89 
Australasia,  7,  15 


Australia,    8,    15,    213  f.,    223; 

fauna  and  flora,  28 
Automobile  Service,  211 
Azores  Islands,  69 

Babads,  41 

Baboes,  288 

Balemboang,  Sultan  of,  109 

Bali,  15,  17,  33,  35,  45,  49,  S8, 
87,  152,  219,  236 

Balige,  216 
Balinese,  58 
Balkan  States,  199 
Bamboo,  25 
Banana,  26 

Banda  Islands,  45,  55,  56,  115 
Bandjermasin,  52,  235  n. 
Bandong, 118, 178,  215,  224,  259 
Banjuwangi,  152 
Banka,  20,  36,  45,  195,  224 
Banking,  189,  228  fE. 
Banks:  rice  credit,  229;  district, 
229;  village  cash  credit,  229  f. 

Banos,  55 

Bantam,  50,  70, 89, 100,  loi,  102, 
103  f.,  108,  no,  119,  122,  153, 
272 

Banting,  28 

Bantool,  254 

Barends,  Willem,  70 

Bataafsche  Petroleum  Company, 
266 

Batavia,  36,  loi,  103-6,  119, 
125,  127;  "Central  Cash" 
bank,  230;  Civil  Service 
College  at,  167;  court,  175; 
harbor  of,  220;  hospitals,  234; 
Queen  of  Insulinde,  107;  qui- 
nine plants,  257;  steamship 
lines,  222;  telegraph,  214 


[309] 


Batavian  Republic,  123,  125 
Battaks,  34,  216 
Battik  cloth,  282  n. 
Belawan,  harbor,  221 
Belgium,  61,  148 
Bengal,  193 
Benkulen,  224 
Bernard,  Charles,  266 
Bert,  J.  ChaUley,  119 
Bezuki,  254 
Bilangas,  58 
Billiton,  20,  36 
Blume,  Dr.,  257 

Borneo,  15-19,  49,  52;  Dayaks 
of,  138;  emigration  to,  207; 
oil,  267;  religions,  87;  rulers, 
109;  salt  monopoly,  190; 
suzerainty,  122;  unknown  to 
white  men,  127 

Boro-Budur,  44,  46 

Bos,  J.  van  den,  261 

Bosch,  Governor  General  van 
den, 157 

Both,  Governor  General  Peter, 

103 
Bra  Widjaja  V,  49 

Brahmans,  33,  87 

Brandes,  Dr.  J.,  46,  51 

Briti-Joeda,  41 

Brata  Yuda,  42 

British,  shipping,  222 

Brito,  Antonio  de,  56 

Broek,W.  Palmer  van  den,43, 104 

Broenei,  Sultanate  of,  52 

Bromo,  Crater,  25 

Brown,  J.  M.,  57,  134  n. 

Bruges,  61 

Brussels,  148 

Buddha,  47 

Buddhism,  7,  53,  54 

Buginese,  33,  52 


Buitenzorg,  126,  164,  214,  262 
Burges,  35 
Burginys,  76 
Bum,  55 

Cacao,  261 

Calcutta,  252 

Campbell,  Donald  MacLain,  71  n. 

143, 151  n- 
Canada,  7,  9,  11 

Canarien  trees,  281 

Canon,  188,  275,  277 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  68 

Carabao,  28,  94,  281 

Cassava,  19 

Casuarina,  25 

Cauizores,  Don  Juan  Lopez,  257 

Celebes,  15-19,  27,  31,  33,  51, 
127,  138, 169, 175;  roads,  219; 
Sea  of,  16 

"Central  Cash"  bank,  230 

Ceram,  31,  55,  267 

Ceylon,  45,  "5 

Chauvinism,  65 

Cheng  Ho,  54 

Cheribon,  50,  55,  108 

China,  7,  49,  193,  213 

Chinchona,  Countess  del,  257 

Chinese,  32,  36,  150;  annals, 
44,  53-54;  in  Borneo,  52; 
in  Celebes,  51;  expedition,  48; 
handicrafts,  187;  in  Java,  90, 
96,  III,  114;  massacre,  116; 
mercenar>',  228;  merchants, 
132;  opium,  193;  schools, 
181;  tea,  262 

Chinese  Sea,  16 

Christian  religion,  87,  122 

Christians,  122 

Cinchona,  246,  247 

Civil  Code,  275 

Clayton  Act,  295 


[310] 


Cloves,  55 

Coal,  20,  36,  224,  261 

Coca,  261 

Cocoanut,  19,  26;  oil,  246,  247 

Cocos  Island,  214 

Coen,  Governor  General  J.  P., 

103,  104,  105,  218  n. 
Cofea  Arabica,iii,2$$;  liber ia, 

256;  robusia,  256 
Cofifee,  120,  127,  138,  139,  153, 

157,  246,  255  f. 
Congo  tea,  265 
Conservatives,  287 
Constantinople,  61,  132 
Copra,  261 
Council  of  the  Indies,  83,  loi, 

122,  163 
Council  of  Seventeen,  loi 
Crusades,  61 
CuUiiur  stelsel,  155,  255 

Daendels,     Governor     General, 

125,  127,  152,  274 
Dayaks,34,52,53.i38;  Tring,53 
Declaration,  Abridged,  173 
Dekker,  Douwes,  140,  141,  155 
Delft,  81 
Deli,  36,  203,  212,  221,  254,  265, 

278 
Demak,  55,  90.    See  Mataram 
Dessa,  91,  94,  251,  273,  277 
Deventer,   M.   L.    van,    102  n., 

104  n.,  no  n.,  119  n. 
Director  General,  83 
Djajanagaro,  49 

Djakatra,  104;  Pangfiran  of,  103 
Djaksa,  176 
Djambi,  54 
Djaro,  168 
Djati,  19,  239 


Djeroek,  27 

Djokjakarta,  42,  46,  211  n.,  212, 
221,  254;  Crown  Prince  of, 
97  n.;  Sultan  of,  153,  154, 
170;  Sultanate  of,  119,  152 

Dordrecht,  62 

Dradjat,  55 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  56 

Dry  season,  23  f. 

Dutch:  East  Indies,  15;  Guinea, 
225;  language,  87,  167,  179, 
189,  199;  navigators,  68; 
people,  56;  possessions,  143; 
Republic,  vii;  ships,  embargo 
on,  65;  subjects,  278 

East  India  Islands,  12,  131 

East  Indian  Company:  British, 
100,  loi,  104,  149;  Dutch, 
72,  92  n.,  109,  112,  136 

"Edele  Heeren,"  no 

Education,  121,  178-86 

Electric  service,  189,  224  ff. 

Emma  harbor,  221 

England,  admitted  to  free  trade, 
123 

EngUsh  language,  167,  198 

Enkhuizen,  62,  8i 

Equator,  16,  23 

Erdbrink,  G.  R.,  164 

Erlangga,  48 

Fa  Hieii,  46 

"Far  Away  Company,"  71 

Far   East:   Netherlands   empire 

in,  72;  language  of,  86 
Federated    Malay    States,    xiv, 

15,33 
Fendall,  John,  124 
Ficus  elaslica,  271 
Fisheries,  189,  237  ff. 
Flores  Island,  15,  31,  58 


[31  ll 


Forestry,  189,  238  ff. 
Fort  de  Kock,  216 

Gamalang,  171 

Garut,  283 

Genoa,  61 

Ghent,  61 

Gillespie,  Colonel,  151 

Gilolo,  31 

Giri,  49,  50;  Priest  Prince  of,  55 

Gold,  20,  36,  224,  261 

Gowa,  51 

Graeff,  A.  C.  D.  de,  164 

Great  Britain,  198,  213,  252 

Greater  Sunda  Islands,  15 

Grotius,  Hugo,  76 

Guam,  214 

Gunung,  Sultanate  of,  52 

Hague,  The,  163,  267;  Civil 
Service  Academy  of,  167 

Halmahera,  55 

Handels  Vereenigingen,  223  n. 

Hanse  cities,  62 

Harbors,  20,  189,  219  ff. 

Harloff,  A.  J.  W.,  170 

Hatuloes,  19 

Havelaar,  Max,  140 

Hawaiian  Islands,  248 

Hazen,  Dr.  G.  A.  J.,  51 

Health,  189,  232  ff.,  290 

Heeckeren,  Baron  C.  W.,  240  n. 

Heemskerck,  69,  70 

"de  Heeren"  17  (The Seventeen 
Gentlemen),  82,  loi 

Hesskart,  257 

Hevea  Braziliensis,  271 

Hivieleia  Vestalrix,  255 

Hindu:  civilization,  90,  95;  cus- 
toms, 93;  influence,  88;  mer- 
chants, 132;  people,  32,  42, 
43,  47,  51,  58,  87;  traders,  53 


Holland,  under  Napoleon,  124 

Hollanders,  37,  52,  89,  96-98, 
107  n.,  122,  135;  coffee  intro- 
duced by,  127;  lost  colonies  to 
English,  123 

Holtzapffel,  J.  J.,  259 

Home  Government,  149, 155,  222 

Hongkong,  252 

Hoorn,  81 

Houtman,  Cornells  de,  69,  70 

Humme,  H.  C,  42 

Indian  Ocean,  16 

Indigo,  19,  III,  140,  157,  261 

Indragiri,  54 

Inquisition,  75 

Insulinde,  15,  24,  112,  124,  142, 
149, 155,  228,  245  n.,  286;  agri- 
cultural, 246;  climate,  24; 
colonial  admiiiistration,  160; 
education,  178;  English  and 
Dutch,  132  n.;  Enghsh  rule, 
150;  fauna  and  flora,  25- 
27;  forestry,  238;  govern- 
ment, 300,  304;  hydraulic 
power,  225;  industries,  261; 
languages,  195-200;  native 
councils,  168;  oil,  266,  270; 
opium,  193;  at  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition,  222 n.;  pawnshops, 
231;  post-offices,  213;  quinine, 
260;  representative  govern- 
ment, i64ff,  175;  subdivisions, 
166, 169;  tea,  265;  title  to,  144; 
transportation,  211;  vaccine, 
233 

Inter  naat,  174 

Iron  ore,  20 

Irrigation,  189,  235  ff. 

Islam,  53 

I-Tsing,  53,  54  n. 


Japan,  252 
Japanese,  222 


[312] 


Java,  xiv,  15,  41,  43;  advanced, 
85;  cable  lines,  214;  coffee,  127; 
colonized  by  Dutch,  118; 
coolies,  201;  courts.  175; 
fauna  and  flora,  25-27;  fertile, 
19;  fisheries,  238;  history, 
46;  irrigation,  236;  oil,  267; 
opium,  193;  people,  57; 
police,  227;  population,  16, 35, 
89, 137,  208;  possibilities,  100; 
post-offices,  213;  quinine,  257; 
religion,  87;  roads,  152,  219; 
rubber,  271;  salt  monopoly, 
190;  schools,  180;  slavery, 
78,  156,  in  State  of  Madjapa- 
hit,  49;  sugar  companies,  82, 
248;  Sultanate  of  Bantam  in, 
100;  tea,  265;  volcanoes,  17; 
War,  154;   wealth  of,  155 

Javanese,  35,  86,  187,  198,  199, 
207,  210 

Javanese- Hindu,  58,  121 

Jonquiere,  P.  W.,  170 

Judson,  Harry  Pratt,  \ni 

Kabayas,  282 

Kalapa,  261  n. 

"Kaling,"46 

Kalinga,  45 

Kampong,  35,  216  n.,  289 

Kapok,  19,  246,  247,  282 

Karons,  34 

Karta,  loi,  108 

Kartanagara,  48 

Kartasura,  no,  116-17,  150 

Kavi,  Basa,  41 

Kawah  Kamodjan,  18,  283  n. 

Kawi,  33,  41 

Kawi  Studies,  41 

Kedu,  46 

Ken  Arak,  48 

Kern,  H.,  41,  51 

Kertaradjasa,  49 

Keyser,  Pieter  Dirckzoon,  70 

[3 


Kina,  257 

Klut,  The,  r8 

Kock,  General  de,  154 

Koran,  177 

Kota  Nopan,  216 

Krakatau,  18 

Kraton,  171 

Krom,  Dr.  N.  J.  K.,  51 

Kruyff,  E.  de,  222  n. 

Kudus,  55 

Kutei,  Sultanate  of,  52 

Lahar,  18 

Lamoeri,  55 

Lampong  district,  100,  119 

Land,  ownership  of,  249 

Landgerecht,  176 

Landraad,  120,  176,  177 

Language,     195  ff.      See    Java, 

Celebes,  etc. 
Law  Merchant,  117,  178 
Ledger,  George,  258 
Lesser  Sunda  Islands,  15 
Leyden,  University  of,  166,  257 
Liberals,  292 

Linschoten,  Jan  Huizen,  68,  69 
Lisbon,  63,  69 
Lombok,    15,    33,    45,    58,    87; 

volcanoes  in,  1 7 
London,  265,  267 
Loudon,  James,  159 
Loudon,    Jonkheer    Dr.    John, 

159  n. 

Ma  Hoean,  54 

Mace,  55 

Madjapahit,  49,  58,  90 

Madura,  16,  109,  201;  opium  in, 
193;  Prince  of,  116;  salt 
monopoly,  190;   schools,  180 

Madurese,  35,  86 

13] 


Magellan,  62 

Makassar,  23]    harbor  of,  221; 

Sultan  of,  89,  106;    Sultanate 

of,  SI  n. 
"Malabar,"  263 
Malacca,  15,  27,  33,  45,  49 
Malay  Archipelago,  15,  16,  41 
Malay  (language),  86,  179,  199 
Malays,  31-34,  52, 96  n.,  141, 142 
Malaysia,  7 
Mango,  27 
Mangosteen,  27 
Mangrove,  19 
Marco  Polo,  41,  54 
Mas  Said,  119 
Mataram,  State  of,  46,  48,  90, 

152;    alliance  vsnth  Makassar, 

106;    King  of,  89,   loi,  102, 

109;   Soesoehoenan  of ,  1 1 1 
Mecca,  90 
Medan,  19,  173,  204,  214,  216, 

272 
Mees,  W.  Fruin,  51 
Menado,  138,  139,  214 
Menangkabau,  54,  93,  142 
Merapi,  48 
!Merbabu,  48 
Middleburg,  62,  81 
Minahassa,  138,  219 
Mining,  189,  224  ff 
Minto,  Lord,  1 24 
Mocha,  127 

Mohammedanism,  7,  49,  88 
Mohammedans,  33,  34,  36,  47, 

58,87,  122,  154 
Molucca  Islands  (Spice  Islands), 

16,46,55,  56,  57,  1320.,  143 
Money,  J.  W.  B.,  137,  155 
Monopoly   of  trade,   loi,    106, 

no 
Monsoons,  23 


Near  East,  6,  7 

Negora,  Depo,  154 

Netherlands:  colonial  poUcy,  134, 
136;  embargoon trade, 65;  East 
Indian  government,  140,  196, 
205,  211  n.,  222  f.,  225,  258; 
under  Phihp  II,  63;  possession 
of  Insulinde,  147;  power  in  Col- 
onies, 122;  psychology,  12; 
Republic  of  the  Seven  United, 
63,  79,  148;  Steamship  Com- 
pany, 222;  title  to  InsuUnde, 
131;  war  with  Spain,  63,  99 

Netherlands  East  Indian  Colo- 
nies, 12,  15,  33,36,  41,50,96, 
137,  188,  192,  211  n.,  213, 
215,  228,  275 

Netherlands  East  Indian  Com- 
pany, 75,  79,  97,  98,  103,  109, 
122,  150,  245;  charter,  80-82; 
monopoly  of  trade,  loi,  106, 
no;  penal  code,  228;  shares,8i 

Netherlands  Navigation  Com- 
pany, xiii 

New  Guinea,  15,  16;  area,  17; 
not  fertile,  19;  fauna  and 
flora,  27,  28;  farmers,  36; 
savages  of,  142 

New  Netherlands,  vii 

New  Zealand,  Dominion  of,  8, 
9,  17 

Nias,  Island  of,  142 

Nickel,  20 
Nutmeg,  55 

Obdeijn,  V.,  255 

Obi,  55 

Oil,  270.    See  Java  and  Sumatra 

Oil-fields,  20 

Oldebarneveldt,  72,  75 

Ombihn,  20 

Ongole,  237 

Oolong  tea,  265 

"Oost-Indisch  Archipel,"  16 


[314] 


Opium,  state  monopoly  of,  189; 

trade,  191  ff. 
Orang  hlanda,  96 
Orang-outang,  27 

Pacific  Ocean,  7,  16,  18 
Padang,  215,  221,  265 
Palembang,   20,  36,  44,  54,  89, 

151,  235  n- 
Palms,  25;  oil,  246 
Pangeran  Ratu,  150 
Papuans,  31,  32,  36 
Parve,  Stein,  156  n. 
Pasars,  218,  284,  285 
Pasei-Samunden,  55 
Passagraluins,  216 
Pasuruan,  211 
Patih,  168 
Pawnshops,  231  ff. 
Pekalongan,  49 

Pekoe  tea,  265 

Pematang  Sir  Antar,  173,  216, 
217,  265 

Penal  Code,  228 

Penal  sanction,  189,  200  ff.,  210 

Penang,  214 

Pepper  trade,  100,  11 1,  119 

Perfumes,  61 

Peru,  257 

Petroleum,  262,  266  f.    See  Oil 

Philippine  Islands,  15,  181,  248; 
volcanoes  in, 1 7 

Pisang,  26 

Pithecanthropus  erediis,  31 

Plancius,  Reverend,  68,  70 

Pol,  Hulshoff,  164 

PoUce  system,  189,  226  ff. 

Pompolomoes,  27 

Pontianak,  214 

Portugal,  61 


Portuguese,  51,  52,  56,  62,  64,  89; 
colonies,  63,  69,  71;  dis- 
coverers, 100;  missionaries, 
121;  in  Moluccas,  143 

Postal  service,  189,  213  ff. 

Preanger  Regencies,  44, 108, 118, 
169,  237,  246,  259,  263,  282 

Priest-Prince,  49 

Prison  system,  189,  227  ff. 

Pulu  Laut,  20,  224 

Putte,  Fransen  van  de,  158 

Quinine,  256  ff . 

RaflBes,  Sir  Stamford,  41, 47,  "9 
n.,  124,  151,  154,  159,  274 

Railways,  189,  211  ff. 

Rainfall,  23 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  76 

Rangawoeni,  48 

Rice,  19 

Roads,  189,  215  ff. 

Rochussen,  Governor  General, 
158 

Roelofson,  P.  A.,  226 

Roffaer,  G.  P.,  51 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  5 
Rotterdam,  62,  81;  Quay,  221 
Royal  Dutch  Petroleum   Com- 
pany, 266 
Royal  Dutch  Shell  group,  300 
Rubber,    204,    208,    246,    262, 

271  ff. 
Ryp,  Captain  de,  69 
Rysens,  F.  van,  71  n. 

Sabang, 221 

Saigon,  214 

Salatiga,  240  n. 

Salt  monopoly,  189  ff. 

Samarang,  36,  no,  120,  211  f., 

221, 227, 234, 252, 267;  Sultan 

of,  lOI, 


I31S] 


Sambaleung,  Sultanate  of,  52 

San  Joao,  Fort,  56 

San  Lucas,  closed,  68 

Sandalwood  stallions,  237 

San  Francisco,  214 

Sanskrit  literature,  42 

Santa  Maria,  closed,  68 

Sarong,  282 

Sasaks,  58 

Sawah  Loentoh,  224 

Sawahs,  19,  94,  251,  258,  281,  284 

Schools,  179-81 

Scidmore,  E.  R.,  119 

Selor  Islands,  15 

Shanghai,  214 

Shell  Company,  Royal  Dutch, 

266 
Shinto,  43 
Sibolga,  216 
Silks,  61 
Silver,  224 

Singapore,  57,  151  n.,  214 
Singkep,  20 
"  Sjamaan,"  43 
Sloot,  Captain,  106 
Soaps,  61 
Society:  Insulinde,  286;  Sarakat 

Islam,  286,  303 
Soenan  Mas,  no 
Soerapati,  109-10 
Soesoehoenan:        Amangcoerat, 

109,  no;    Ingalaga,  105,  106, 

108;  Pakoe  Boewana,  of  Java, 

no 
Souchong,  265 
South  African  States,  Federated, 

8,  9,  198  n.,  211  n. 
Spain,  61,  63 

Speelman,  Governor  General,  107 
Speelwyk,  Fort,  109 
Speyer,  Dr.  J.  S.,  51 


"Spice  Islands,"  15,  62,  See 
Molucca  Islands 

Spice  trade,  53,  61,  63,  97  f.,  153 

States  General,  72,  80,  82,  84, 
100,  163,  166 

Steamship  lines,  222 

Stirum,  J.  P.  Count  van  Lim- 
burg,  172 

Straits  Settlements,  213 

Struben,  J.  J.,  255 

Stuart,  Cohen,  42 

Sugar,  19,  246;  companies,  82, 
270;  industry,  in,  120,  139, 
157,  247  fif. 

Sula,  55 

Sumatra,  16, 17, 19,  20,  127;  civ- 
ilization, 44;  colonization,  210; 
coolies  shipped  to,  203,  207; 
courts,  175;  in  1872,  159; 
estates,  246;  gold,  20;  harbors, 
222;  history,  53;  motoring, 
151;  oil,  267;  population,  208; 
races,  35;  roads,  219;  rubber, 
271;  salt  monopoly,  190;  Sul- 
tanate of  Bantam,  100;  trade 
routes  by,  45;  worst  natives, 
142. 

Sumba,  15,  58 

Sumbawa,  15,  58,  109;  races 
and  languages  of,  33;  vol- 
canoes, 17 

Sunda  Islands:  Greater,  15,  27; 
SmaU,  58 

Sundanese,  35,  86,  199,  282 

Surabaya,  iii,  36,  55,  120,  211, 

220,  234,  267;    King  of,  loi 
Surakarta,  42,  46,  117,  119,  152, 

221,  254;  Sultan  of,  171 

Tabur,  Sultanate  of,  52 
Tak,  Major,  108 
Tamarind,  27 
Tandjong,  224 
Tandjong-Priok,  220,  221 
Tantiemes,  82 


[316] 


Tapioca,  261 

Tapir,  27 

Taroema,  46 

Taruntung,  216 

Tasik  Malaja,  238 

Tea,  246,  247,  261  ff. 

Teak,  18,  19,  239;  see  Djati 

Tegal,  55 

Telegraph,  189,  213,  ff 

Telephone,  189,  213  ff. 

Teraate,  55;  Sultan  of,  56,  57,  89 

Thousand  Temples,  44 

Tideman,  J.,  173 

Tidore,  55;  Sultan  of,  56,  57 

Tiger,  27 

Timber,  241 

Timor,  15,  58,  219 

Tin,  20,  36,  195,  224,  261 

Tjahraningrat,  Prince  of  Ma- 
dura, 116 

Tjandi,  240  n. 

Tjandi  Sewoe  (Thousand  Tem- 
ples), 44 

Tjepu,  240  n.,  267 

Tjilatjap,  220 

Tjipanas,  16,  118,  284 

Toba  Lake,  173,  216 

Tobacco,  19,  208,  246,  254,  270, 

300 
Toemapel,  48 
Tohdjaja,  48 
Tokos,  96 

Torchiana,  H.  A.  van  Coenen,  1 78 
Towerson,  Gabriel,  150 
Trade,  foreign,  189,  222  ff. 
Troeno  Djojo,  106 
Tuban,  55. 
Turkish,  86 

United  States,  24,  136,  187,  198, 
203  ff,,  209,  aiin.,  322,  223, 


226,  234,  248,  260,  293,  295, 

304  n. 
United  States  Rubber  Company, 

204 
University  of  Leyden,  167,  257 

Vaccinium,  25 

Valkinier,     Governor     General, 

"5,  "7 
Van  der  Lith,  44 
Van  Imhoff,  Governor  General, 

115,  117,  118,  126 
Van  Neck,  71 
Van  Speyk,  148 
Venice,  61 
Vere,  62 

Verre,  Maatschappy  van,  71  n. 
Veterinary    service,    civil,    189, 

236  ff. 
Veth,  Dr.  Jan,  51,  119  n. 
Vienna,  Treaty  of,  124,  147 
Volcanoes,  17 
Volksraad,  165,  263 
Vreeland,  Hamilton,  76 
Walcott,  Arthur  S.,  57,  141 
Wallace,  Alfred  Russell,  17,  26, 

27,  31,  137,  155 
Waringen  trees,  282 
Warongs,  96,  114 
Water  power,  189,  224 
Way  lings,  42 
Wedana,  166,  168,  177,  199,  227, 

282 
Weltevreden,  125,  233,  281 
Westminster,  Treaty  of,  102 
Wetar,  15 
Wilde,  de,  no 
William  the  Silent,  vii,  63,  149 

Yap,  214 


Zutphen,  153 


[3'7l 


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PtB5     1971 


Form  Ij-0 
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